Early period
Exploration and initial settlement
Europeans explored the Brazilian coastline only after mapping parts of the Caribbean Sea and the northeastern coast of South America; moreover, intensive exploration of Brazil resulted indirectly from Portugal’s efforts to expand its colonies in Africa and Asia. In 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama discovered an all-water route to the Indies and the Spice Islands via Africa’s Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese king, hoping to capitalize on this discovery, dispatched an imposing armada to India under Pedro Álvares Cabral, whose sailing directions had been drawn up by da Gama himself. To avoid the calms off the Gulf of Guinea, Cabral bore so far to the west that on April 22, 1500, he sighted the mainland of South America. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) between Spain and Portugal had established a line at about longitude 46° 30′ W that divided Spanish (west) and Portuguese (east) claims in the New World. The region sighted by Cabral lay well within the Portuguese zone, and the crown promptly claimed it. Portugal’s new possession was initially called Vera Cruz (“True Cross”), but it was soon renamed Brazil because of the copious amounts of brazilwood (pau-brasil) found there that yielded a valuable red dye.

The tidings of Cabral’s landing aroused great enthusiasm among the Portuguese, and the crown began to sponsor major transatlantic explorations, including that of the Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci, whose small fleet sailed along the coast of Brazil and for the first time estimated the extent of the land. Vespucci, calendar in hand, baptized different points on the coast with the names of the saints on whose days they were discovered.

Interest in Brazil waned over the subsequent two decades. The Portuguese began a desultory trade with the Indians for brazilwood, but they failed to discover precious metals in Brazil and thus focused their attention on the lucrative trade with Asia. Brazil became a sort of no-man’s-land over which the Portuguese crown wielded only a shadowy control, and European rivals quickly took advantage of that neglect. The French, in particular, trespassed on Portuguese claims in South America and shipped the dyewood to Europe. Portugal’s apathy ended, however, during the reign (1521–57) of John III, who gradually shifted the focus in colonial affairs from Asia to America.

The Portuguese crown made the first systematic effort to establish a government in Brazil in 1533. It divided the colony into 15 hereditary captaincies, or fiefs, each extending 50 leagues—i.e., about 160 miles (260 km)—along the coast and an indefinite distance inland. These grants were distributed to favoured persons, chiefly courtiers, who became known as donatários (“donees”) and wielded extensive rights and privileges; however, only two of the captaincies were ultimately successful: São Vicente (in present São Paulo state) and Pernambuco. The former included the town of São Vicente, the growing port of Santos, and the village of São Paulo on the Serra do Mar’s fertile Piratininga Plateau, all of which had a combined population of about 5,000 by the mid-16th century. The captaincy of Pernambuco developed in northeastern Brazil, centred on the town of Olinda. Its donatário, Duarte Coelho Pereira, converted Pernambuco into a great sugar-producing region, offering the first example of a profitable agrarian export from the New World to Europe.

Royal governors, Jesuits, and slaves
King John III resolved to strengthen his authority in Brazil by unifying the inefficient donatários under a central administration. He appointed as governor-general Tomé de Sousa, a Portuguese noble with impressive experience in Africa and India. Sousa landed in Brazil in 1549 and founded Salvador (Bahia), a capital from which Brazil was governed for 214 years. Sousa also placed local officials over the captaincies and fortified strategic points along the coast. In the cities, he established municipal organizations similar to those in Portugal. Brazil then began to attract settlers in increasing numbers. By 1600 Bahia and Pernambuco each had a population of roughly 2,000 Europeans and more than twice as many African slaves and Indians.

Jesuit brethren provided labour and expertise that were central to the progress of the colony. At the request of John III, Manuel da Nóbrega and several other Jesuits had accompanied Tomé de Sousa to Salvador and became the first of a long line of missionaries devoted to protecting and converting the Indians and raising the moral level of the colonists. As soon as they converted Indians to Christianity, the Jesuits settled them in aldeias (“villages”) that were akin to the missions in Spanish America. Most other Portuguese colonists owned Indian slaves, however, and resented the Jesuits’ control over such a valuable labour supply. A conflict arose between the two groups and reverberated throughout the colony, and both parties appealed to the crown. The Jesuits won a partial victory in a royal decree of 1574 that granted them full control over the Indians in the aldeias while permitting the colonists to enslave Indians captured in “legitimate warfare.” In the Amazon River basin, Father António Vieira became the centre of a somewhat similar conflict in the 17th century, when he established a chain of missions there. Though the missions helped protect Indians from slavery, they greatly contributed to the spread of deadly European diseases. Brazilian colonists, facing a compounding labour shortage in the mid-16th century, imported increasing numbers of African slaves.

Dutch and French incursions
Brazil had hardly been brought under royal Portuguese authority before the French made a determined effort to establish a permanent colony there. In 1555 French troops took possession of the beautiful harbour of Rio de Janeiro, which, inexplicably, the Portuguese had neglected to occupy. A large Portuguese force under Mem de Sá, the governor-general, blockaded the entrance to the harbour, eventually forced the French garrison to surrender, and founded (in 1567) the city of Rio de Janeiro to ward off future attacks.

Portugal was united with Spain from 1580 to 1640, and Brazil was consequently exposed to attacks by Spain’s enemies, including the newly independent Netherlands. The Dutch seized and briefly held Salvador in 1624–25, and in 1630 the Dutch West India Company dispatched a fleet that captured Pernambuco, which remained under Dutch control for a quarter-century. The company chose as governor of its new possession John Maurice, count of Nassau-Siegen, a prince of the house of Orange and perhaps the ablest administrator in the Netherlands. The Dutch also invited distinguished artists and scientists to make known to Europe the resources and beauties of Brazil; however, the profit-driven directors of the company refused to support John Maurice’s enlightened social policies, and he resigned in 1644. João Fernandes Vieira, a wealthy plantation owner, subsequently launched a rebellion that steadily gained ground against John Maurice’s incompetent successors. The Brazilians, acting without Portuguese aid, defeated and expelled the Dutch in 1654, an achievement that helped spark Brazilian nationalistic sentiments.

Ethnic groups
Brazil has long been a melting pot for a wide range of cultures. From colonial times Portuguese Brazilians have favoured assimilation and tolerance for other peoples, and intermarriage was more acceptable in Brazil than in most other European colonies; however, Brazilian society has never been completely free of ethnic strife and exploitation, and some groups have chosen to remain separate from mainstream social life. Brazilians of mainly European descent account for nearly one-half the population, although people of mixed ethnic backgrounds form an increasingly larger segment; more than two-fifths of the total are mulattoes (mulatos; people of mixed African and European ancestry) and mestizos (mestiços, or caboclos; people of mixed European and Indian ancestry). A small proportion are of entirely African or Afro-Indian ancestry, and peoples of Asian descent account for an even smaller division of the total. Indians are, by far, the smallest of the major ethnic groups; however, as many as one-third of all Brazilians have some Indian ancestors.

Brazilians of African descent (referred to by outside scholars as Afro-Brazilians) can be further characterized as pardos (of mixed ethnicities) or pretos (entirely African); the latter term is usually used to refer to those with the darkest skin colour. Although skin colour is the main basis of the distinction between pardo and preto, this distinction is often subjective and self-attributed. Many Brazilians of colour consider it more advantageous to identify themselves as pardos and therefore do so.

Skin colour and ethnic background influence social interactions in Brazil. Brazilians with darker skin colour account for a disproportionately large number of the country’s poor; nevertheless, racially motivated violence and intolerance are less common in Brazil than in the United States and some parts of Europe. Blatant discrimination is illegal but pervasive, especially in predominantly white middle- and upper-class areas, and racism often takes subtle forms. Interracial marriage does occur; however, the majority of marriages in Brazil are between two people of the same race or colour partly because Brazilians tend to interact primarily with people of their own social class and geographic region—two factors that are closely tied to race in Brazil. Still, although the country may not be a “racial democracy” as some observers have claimed, its social barriers are somewhat flexible and even permeable. Members of the light-skinned majority seldom discriminate against Afro-Brazilians who have achieved high levels of education or socioeconomic status. As a consequence, most Afro-Brazilians pursue social advancement through individual rather than collective actions, such as civil rights movements.

Language of Brazil
Portuguese is the first language of the vast majority of Brazilians, but numerous foreign words have expanded the national lexicon. The Portuguese language has undergone many transformations, both in the mother country and in its former colony, since it was first introduced into Brazil in the 16th century. The two countries have largely standardized their spellings, but pronunciations, vocabularies, and the meanings of words have diverged so widely that it now may be easier for some Brazilians to understand Spanish-language films from other Latin American countries than films from Portugal. Italians, Germans, Japanese, and Spanish-speaking immigrants have introduced new words and expressions in Brazilian Portuguese, such as the ubiquitous expression tchau (“farewell”), which was adopted from the Italian ciao. Foreign products and technologies have introduced additional terms.

Brazil’s indigenous peoples speak dozens of discrete languages, and some authorities suggest that the greatest divergence of the Brazilian language from the Portuguese can be traced to initial contact with the Indians. The Tupian, or Tupí-Guaraní, language group has especially influenced Brazilian place-names and added perhaps thousands of words and expressions to Brazilian Portuguese. Tupian was the principal language of Brazil’s native peoples before European contact, and it became the lingua franca between Indians and Portuguese traders, missionaries, adventurers, and administrators; it was widely used in the Amazon region and western Brazil until the 19th century. The Tupian influence also caused Brazilians to enunciate more clearly and to use more nasal speech patterns than their Iberian counterparts.

Religion
About two-thirds of the Brazilian people adhere to Roman Catholicism, which ceased to be the official religion after the proclamation of the republic in 1889. After independence, which loosed the formerly close links between church and state, the predominance of Catholics among the immigrants of the 19th and 20th centuries contributed to the lasting presence of that religion. Much of the rest of the population is Protestant, including fundamentalist and Pentecostal groups. (Evangelical groups gathered rapid support from the 1990s by taking some members from the Catholic ranks; in response, Catholic groups initiated a series of charismatic masses and rallies.)

The cultures of the indigenous Indians, Africans, and Portuguese have together formed the modern Brazilian way of life. The Portuguese culture is by far the dominant of these influences; from it Brazilians acquired their language, their main religion, and most of their customs. The Indian population is now statistically small, but Tupí-Guaraní, the language of many Brazilian Indians, continues to strongly influence the Brazilian Portuguese language; other Indian contributions to Brazilian culture are most apparent in the Amazon basin.

African influences on the Brazilian way of life are strongest along the coast between the Northeast and Rio de Janeiro; they include traditional foods, religions, and popular music and dance, especially the samba. Commercial and cultural imports from Europe and North America have often competed with—and influenced—Brazilians’ own cultural output, and critics have argued that the nation’s cultural identity is suffering as a result. Despite numerous social and economic challenges, Brazilians continue to be exuberant and creative in their celebrations and art forms.

Cultural institutions
The Brazilian Academy of Letters, with its headquarters in Rio de Janeiro, is generally regarded as the most prestigious of the country’s numerous learned societies. The National Library, also in Rio, was founded in 1810 with 60,000 volumes from the Portuguese royal library; it now holds millions of books and documents. Most of Brazil’s other libraries have limited holdings. Among the major history museums are the Museum of the Republic (1960; housed in the former governmental palace) and the National Historical Museum (1922), both in Rio, the São Paulo University Museum (1895), and the Imperial Museum (1940) in Petropólis.

The São Paulo Art Museum (1947) and Rio de Janeiro Museum of Modern Art (1948) are internationally renowned. Both Rio and São Paulo have major museums of anthropology and numerous theatres. A notable institution for the performing arts is the São Paulo State Symphony Orchestra (1953; revitalized 1972), housed since 1999 in the Sala São Paulo, a renovated early 20th-century railroad station. Few of the country’s major cultural institutions are based in Brasília.

The arts
Literature
Brazil has had many world-renowned literary figures whose cumulative writings are regarded by many to be richer than those of Portugal because of their variety of ethnic and regional themes. Joaquim Machado de Assis, the son of a freed slave, was a leading voice of the 19th century with his romantic novels. In the 20th century the Northeast produced a particularly wide range of superb writing, including that of Gilberto Freyre on the subject of life under slavery, Graciliano Ramos’s tragedies about the drought quadrilateral, João Guimaraês Rosa’s tales of survival and violence in the interior, and Jorge Amado’s lighthearted stories set in the cacao-growing zone of Bahia. Érico Veríssimo’s tales of southern Brazil have also been translated into many languages.

Visual arts
The landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx has made urban Brazilians especially aware of the splendours of their natural environment by replacing the traditional, formal European-style gardens containing imported plants with a profusion of native species in approximation to their natural settings. Some of Marx’s landscapes have been used to set off the imaginative structures of Brazil’s world-renowned architect Oscar Niemeyer.

Among his works, Niemeyer designed a striking array of public buildings in Brasília, in collaboration with Lúcio Costa, the creator of the capital’s original layout. Brazil also cherishes numerous splendid structures from its colonial and imperial past, from the tiled houses and ornate churches of Salvador to the palaces and public buildings of Rio de Janeiro. Among the most revered of these are the 18th-century churches in Minas Gerais that were adorned by facades, biblical scenes, and statues carved in soapstone by Antônio Francisco Lisboa, better known as Aleijadinho (“Little Cripple”).

History of Chile
Indigenous cultures and peoples, which for centuries avoided contact with the European explorers, were finally colonized by the Spaniards that came to South America in search of riches and glory for their Crown.

The Kings of the Old Continent, the Conquests and Reconquests gave way to the country’s founding fathers. The territory became a Republic and today celebrates a little more than 200 years of independence.

Civil wars, liberal governments and radical regimes paved the way to Presidential rule in the 20th century. Our country had been on its way to progress previously under democratic governments, but big changes came about in the 70’s and 80’s with over 15 years of military regime before a return of democracy.

We are a sound and trustworthy country that through sacrifice and hard work, has maintained its borders secure. We have learned from our history’s different styles of government. The resulting experience and their contrasts have created awareness among the citizens that continually allows us to adapt to the pace of the world and its constant changes.

Language in Chile
Spanish is our official language and although spoken by all Chileans, there are other languages or dialects still used by the different indigenous communities of the country.

With Spanish inherited from the Spanish Conquistadores and the inclusion, over the years, of local and foreign expressions, our language developed its own particular nature. In this way, phonetic, syntactic and lexical traits helped to create our own words or “Chilenisms”.

Despite the big changes, indigenous languages are still present reinforcing the identity of their peoples and inhabitants. In the northern Andean area, you can discover Aymara and Quechua. The Rapa Nui or Easter Island language enchants the Polynesian Easter Island. And Mapudungun covers some areas of the south of the country with a mystic aura, thanks to the Mapuche people.

Social heritage and cultural tradition are intertwined to express the essence of the end of the world.

Religion in Chile
In Chilean society, religion plays an important role and has always been relevant in events throughout our history.

The religious world in Chile sees Catholicism as the predominant faith. Its legacy can be admired in the rich architecture present throughout the country. The cathedral of Santiago is a landmark right at the heart of the capital. And the more than 400 churches made of wood in Chiloé, 16 of which were declared World Heritage Sites by Unesco, are a living testimony of it.

In our society, a variety of beliefs and practices co-exist. Followers of the evangelical church, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Latter Day Saints, and Jews have discovered that our lands have a broad freedom of religion. There are religious festivities dedicated to the Patron Saints and to the Virgin and from this faith and traditional base, celebrations full of identity such as the Tirana or the Quasimodo Festivals are born.

Art in Chile
Expressions born from the land spread out into the world to portray the stories of a magical people and are creations that truly express elements of Chile’s soul.

For a traditionally silent people, music is a way to communicate with a multitude of voices, a way of feeling and dreaming. Our music is a local sounding creation that reaches a universal audience.

The works of Los Jaivas and Víctor Jara transcend even today, acting to revive and promote rural poetry, which is Violeta Parra´s legacy to the world. Sebastián Silva and Andrés Wood have found a way to express national identity through their films that have been projected at important international festivals.

Chilean visual art has reached the most important museums and exhibitions of the world with renowned artists such as the surrealist master Roberto Lira or Pedro Lira, founder of the National Museum of Fine Arts. Art is also in the streets, like the murals of Valparaiso, where the anonymous and collective talent gives Chilean art its multiple shades.

Culture is alive and beating in Chile, it moves forward, is nurtured and permanently grows, inviting the entire world to become explorers.

Customs & Traditions in Chile
The wisdom and expressions of the soul that are passed on from generation to generation are manifested in customs that are as diverse as our landscapes.

Festivals that enchant and capture their participants, feature costumes and masks that shine under the Altiplanic sun during the Tirana Festival. Myths and legends come to life in the magical Polynesian rituals of Easter Island. While in Chiloé, the solidarity of the Minga celebrates the common effort of building or moving a local house by a group of people.

There is a broad diversity of festivities, where the Independence Day celebrations are central. During September 18th and 19th, we celebrate our independence with parties. We gather in “fondas” to enjoy typical food, while we dance to the rhythm of “cueca” and other popular music.

It is the imaginarium of a country and its people, which preserves and recreates the essence of an ancestral past throughout the entire country.

Literature & Poetry in Chile
Inspiration comes from the end of the world. Where poets and anti-poets create realities and points of view as diverse as their own exponents.

Our country has given birth to Nobel Prize winners. Creators who expand their vision of life and the world through words that, with ink, express emotions from the soul.

The waves of the Pacific Ocean that crashed violently onto the rocks of Isla Negra inspired Pablo Neruda. His hermetically somber works on passionate love made him the most reproduced poet in the world. And the landscapes of Vicuña, in the Elqui Valley, left their imprint on the life and works of the first Latin American Literature Nobel Prize winner, Gabriela Mistral.

There are also contemporary geniuses that inspire new generations. Through an ironic and iconoclastic revelation of a problematical world, Nicanor Parra created anti-poetry and the influence of his aesthetic proposal became a landmark of Chilean literature.

The novels of Isabel Allende come to life through Hollywood productions. And Alejandro Jodorowsky has become a spiritual guru on expanding the frontiers of the imagination.

In the richness of the Chilean soil, food grows that is full of the flavor of nature and is then exported to the world.

Our ingredients carry in their taste the more than 4,000 kilometers of coast and the life of 17 climates, making them unique, with wines that share the traditions of the Old World and keep the secrets of the earth.

With these products, after preparation with local techniques, we create unique dishes which give the food its own identity and a new life. Among the most famous local dishes you’ll find pastel de choclo (corn-based dish), the beef empanadas and the curanto from Chiloé. In the latter, the food is steamed in a hole covered with native leaves and cooked over hot stones.

Thanks to a chain that begins with the efforts of those working the land, the food is produced, transported, cooked and reaches its full potential when people all over the world enjoy it at their tables.

Let the people of Colombia show you the most welcoming place on Earth
The most welcoming place on Earth is ready to greet you with a beaming smile, a hot cup of coffee and the boundless warmth of its people, giving you the most memorable of experiences.

Colombia is a topographically diverse country, where you’ll find mountainous regions, stretching plains, mysterious rainforests and—obviously—stunning, world-famous beaches. And just like its geography, its people are varied and charming. Colombians will always greet you with a smile on their face, are more than willing to help out anyone who might need it, and will no doubt share with you that joy they carry within them, making you feel right at home in the most welcoming place on Earth.

Each region has unique characteristics that its inhabitants often reflect through their personality and outlook on life, the one thing that remains the same is their kindness and warmth. Join us for a brief tour of Colombia’s 6 tourism regions and the people that’ll welcome you in each one of them.

Western Colombian Andes, Mountains of coffee and flowers, people as warm as coffee
Colombian coffee enjoys quite the level of world renown thanks to its soft taste and outstanding quality, which—believe it or not—are attributes also shared by the people who inhabit the region it’s grown in; a region that transforms society and aims to create a bright future rooted in tradition. This region, in which you’ll find cities like Armenia, Pereira, Manizales and Medellin, you’ll also find kind, friendly people ready to make you feel right at home. Those who come visit will meet friendly farmers to share delightful conversations and cups of the world’s best coffee with.

Greater Colombian Caribbean: Much more than Caribbean, smiling as ever
A welcoming land where summer never ends: warm temperatures, a fresh breeze, paradise-like beaches and joyful people, home to fascinating cultures, indigenous and raizal people, to carnivals and music, to sacred archeological sites, to García Márquez’s inspiration and to the world’s most beautiful colonial city. Those who inhabit this region are people that’ll treat you like lifelong friends from the moment you meet; cheerful greetings and countless smiles make up their routines. They live for music, and the typical rhythms of Colombia flow through their veins and can be heard in their iconic song-like accent. Once there, just let yourself go with the flow and soon you’ll feel like a true Colombian who enjoys every aspect of life.

Colombian Pacific: Flavors of forest and sea, a true natural paradise
Upon visiting the Colombian Pacific—definitely Colombia’s best-kept secret—you’ll soon fall under this region’s joyful spell. Just the city of Cali, capital of Salsa, with its gastronomy and festivals, will take you on a vibrant journey of flavor and dance moves that its inhabitants will be more than happy to share with you.

Beyond the city and the rainforest, you’ll get a unique opportunity to admire majestic beings that’ll leave you in awe: humpback whales. These honored visitors join us between July and November each year to give birth to their calves in the warm waters of the Colombian Pacific. Their jumps are without a doubt one of life’s most amazing spectacles, the kind only a megadiverse paradise such as this one could offer.

Eastern Colombian Andes: Legendary valleys and moors, brimming with history and culture
The Eastern Colombian Andes are the place where history and modernity meet, what with heritage towns such as Villa de Leyva and Barichara, as well as modern metropolises like the capital city, Bogota, which is itself home to ancient legends like that of El Dorado.

In this region, defined by the mountain range’s various moors and valleys, you’ll find sweet people who, despite a slight shyness, are more than willing to share with you the warmth of their home and soft, kind words that resonate with the mountainous tranquility. This region is also home to quiet, helpful farm people who treat their crops and animals with the utmost respect. Without a doubt, you’ll wish to return every time you visit Colombia.

The Colombian Amazon-Orinoco: Sacred rainforests and plains, Colombia’s green heart
The Amazon-Orinoco is Colombia’s green heart, a mind-blowingly huge and diverse region consisting of age-old rainforests, imposing skies and formidable rivers, where you’ll enjoy one of the world’s best nature tourism destination.

The southern half of the Colombian Amazon-Orinoco is inhabited by indigenous communities that are more than willing to share with you the secrets of the rainforest and provide you with ancestral wisdom that’ll make you feel immense respect and love for their land.

This is perhaps the country’s least-populated region, but that doesn’t mean the warmth of Colombian people can’t be felt there. Upon visiting, you’ll find lots of Colombians from different parts of the country that have moved there for various reasons but that are all delighted to call this place home.

The northern half of this region is defined by wild plains that stretch beyond the horizon, where cattle and native species share the rich land. Colombia’s Eastern Plains cover various departments and are home to the famous River of Five Colors: Caño Cristales. This is one of the country’s most impressive tourist destinations, where the water takes on countless hues as it flows over the colorful algae that grows below. Colombians who inhabit this region are known for their solidarity and commitment, and are always happy to give you a smile as they share the many aspects of life on the plains.

The Colombian Massif: Ancestral origins, timeless Andean wisdom
Welcome to the cradle where ancient Andean traditions and wisdom were born and still thrive today. Here you’ll find archeological sites like San Agustín and Tierradentro, where you’ll travel back to a timeless land.

This region is home to people that hold ancestral indigenous wisdom close to their heart and that will share with all visitors the traditions and culture that are bound to open up their minds.

This was just a quick tour of Colombia across its people and landscapes. A mere taste of the warmth and joyfulness Colombians have in store for you. So go ahead and come visit the country that’s always happy to greet you, the most welcoming place on Earth.

Trips to Colombia will make you feel just like home
No matter where you come from, Colombia, the most welcoming country in the world, will always greet you with open doors, starting with our people. Get ready to discover why destinations in Colombia are so unique.

Colombia, a country that welcomes you with hospitality wherever you go
It does not matter if the weather in the destination you choose to visit is cold or warm, because in the most welcoming country in the world, what adds warmth to each place is its people. That’s right, Colombians and their interest in being the greatest hosts will hold the doors wide open for you from the very first day. They will join you during your tour to make sure you feel like home, and they will say goodbye to you with a warm “See you soon!”

Before you come to see it for yourself, we will tell you what makes travels to Colombia unforgettable experiences. Let’s begin!

In Colombian cities, the climate merges with the warmth of its people
Colombia is synonymous with joy and hospitality, as well as cultural diversity. It is a country where people are as warm as the weather, sometimes even warmer, and you can feel it from the moment they greet you and as they accompany you throughout your stay. For example, it happens in the Colombian Caribbean, where not only the rays of the sun embrace you, but also the warmth of tourist hospitality that is found at every corner.

It may be of interest: Have fun solving these travel trivia questions to find out your next destination according to your home routine.

The most welcoming destinations are in Colombia
In destinations such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and San Andrés and Providencia, the ‘coastal people’ welcome you with a joyful, outgoing personality and great kindness. This makes it easy to enjoy emblematic places such as the Historic Center of Cartagena, wondrous places like Bocas de Ceniza in Barranquilla, the contrast of the beach with the whitecaps of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the sea of seven colors in the San Andrés Archipelago, declared a World Biosphere Reserve.

In these places, you can also enjoy homemade preparations that will delight you with the spectacular flavors of Colombian cuisine, such as the traditional fried food of the Caribbean Coast. Locals will make you fall in love with the famous arepa e’ huevo (a fried corn cake with an egg stuffed inside) or a carimañola (a fried yucca cake with cheese inside). Just a taste will be enough to discover the love Colombians put into each dish.

You can also discover the characteristic warmth of Colombians through dance. The most welcoming country in the world is also the land of 1,000 rhythms, and the music of Colombia invites you to take part in fairs and festivals such as the Barranquilla Carnival. Every year this special event celebrates the emblematic expressions of the identity of the city, its people and the culture of the Colombian Caribbean.

Colombian hospitality makes visitors fall in love with the country
Thanks to a pleasantly warm climate, incredible tourist attractions, and the Paisa culture, you’ll want to experience cities like Medellín, also known as “The City of Eternal Spring.” Here, culture is expressed through its friendly and resourceful people, who celebrate the variety of flowers and the work of the silleteros, the artists who make beautiful flower compositions of the Feria de las Flores in Medellín.

Something very similar happens in the Coffee Cultural Landscape, where you will find the best coffee experience in Colombia. Here, the intense green mountains where the coffee plantations are located produces the best coffee beans. The beans are collected by coffee growers who take care of even the smallest detail to give you a unique cup of coffee.

From one Colombian region to another, tourist hospitality doesn’t change, but transforms depending on the destination. Each locale takes a new style, as is the case in cities such as Bucaramanga or Cali which welcome you with a wide gastronomic variety, nature and adventure tourism, and dance. The latter is especially popular in Cali, the Capital of Salsa.

Explore our warm culture on your trips to Colombia
Another way to familiarize yourself with the warmth of culture is by visiting the capital of Colombia. Bogotá is a city where people from all over the country coexist, making it a diverse and multicultural melting pot, and an ideal destination full of history, culture, authentic cuisine, and big business.

Very close to Bogotá, you can enjoy cultural tourism by visiting some of its 17 Heritage Towns, such as Guaguas and Villa de Leyva. This is of the most appreciated jewels of Colombia, which with cobbled streets and colonial architecture will transport you through the rich history of the most welcoming country in the world.

What are you waiting for? Surround yourself with the warmth of our culture! Plan your trip to Colombia, we will be waiting for you with arms wide open.

Trying to gather a list of nice places to visit, unforgettable experiences, and breathtaking moments? We already did the homework for you with this bucket list of the best tourist attractions in Colombia that you just can’t miss.

All you need to do is put the list into action on a fantastic journey of your own!

Connect with the wildest part of Colombia with this bucket list adventure
Begin this tour with a sense of the wild beauty that some Colombian tourist attractions hide, those that have been protected by nature and promise to renew your soul.

1. Fly over the largest rainforest reserve in the world
There’s a hidden world in the middle of Colombia’s Amazon called Serranía de Chiribiquete National Natural Park. Symbolically located deep in the heart of the country, it easily holds our number one spot on this bucket list.

This captivating landscape was declared a Cultural and Natural Heritage of Humanity by Unesco in 2018 and 14% of all animal species on earth call its 4.3 million hectares home. If this wasn’t stunning enough, its majestic geological formations preserve human-created artwork dating back over 20,000 years!

You can even explore this paradise by plane, flying over the area to appreciate the tepuis, waterfalls, rivers, lakes, and rainforest from above. This is definitely one of the Best places to visit in South America, but how can you get there? Simply take a flight from Guaymaral airport north of Bogotá, the capital of Colombia.

2. Sleep under the stars in one of Colombia’s four deserts
Just 30 minutes away from the city of Neiva, an abrupt change in the landscape takes center stage. By day, varying shades of orange paint an unforgettable landscape, while at night an abundance of stars join you for company.

This is the Tatacoa Desert, a tropical dry forest that is undoubtedly one of the best tourist places to add to your bucket list through Colombia. A place where cacti of different shapes and sizes reign, some growing up to five meters, and where extensive labyrinths of earth and plateau deliver unparalleled majesty.

It is here, like nowhere else, where you can appreciate the best starry sky, either from the La Tatacoa Astronomical Observatory or from the comfort of glamping, making it one of the world’s best places for couples to travel.

Discover some bucket list visits that represent the urban culture of Colombia
Colombia’s big cities enrich the country with their style, tradition, and art. Not only do they embody the past, but they also build a future every day through a refreshing urban landscape.

3. Walk among urban art in Medellín
Let yourself be surrounded by the ‘paisa’ culture of Medellín, also known as the “City of eternal spring” due to the warmth of its people and year-round pleasant climate, while you tour a vibrant art scene throughout its streets.

Enjoy the creative air of the city streets, including 23 works by Colombian artist Fernando Botero, and dive into an epicenter of culture: the Comuna 13. If you like to travel alone, book an urban art and graffiti tour to discover a curated collection of works that represent the incredible cultural transformation here.

4. Visit studios of talented artists in Cartagena de Indias
Without a doubt, “La Heroica” or “The Heroic City”, as Cartagena de Indias is also known, will surprise you on every corner. Its streets are full of history and culture, inviting you to stay and explore it nonstop. Begin with the San Felipe Castle, an iconic point of the city that was declared a World Heritage Site by Unesco.

Afterwards, take a stroll to Getsemaní, an old bohemian neighborhood where graffiti art adorns every street. Tour galleries and even visit the studios of renowned local artists who the city inspired for an unmissable tourist attraction and must-see for any bucket list.

Schedule your experience in the ancient streets of Getsemaní in Cartagena through one of the many urban art and graffiti tours that the city offers.

You may also be interested: Unwind and uncover the secrets of a true Caribbean culture

Fall in love with earthly paradises, some of the best vacations spots
For a moment you’ll wonder if you’re witnessing heaven on earth, as few tourist attractions can warm your soul and make time stand still as these do.

5. A paradise in the middle of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is also on this list
Just 45 minutes away from the city of Santa Marta is Minca, a destination located in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park where you can go hiking and find natural freshwater wells and coffee farms.

The impressive Marinka Falls originate from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a haven for bathing and enjoying the soundtrack of nature. Go for a swim, rent a large hammock to relax, or why not, take advantage of the fact that you are in the middle of a vast cocoa growing area and prepare some artisan chocolate!

6. Enjoy the vastness of a lush green valley
The landscapes of the Cocora Valley will captivate you instantly. Located in the heart of the Coffee Cultural Landscape, this nature reserve is home to the tallest wax palms in the world, a national emblem of Colombia which can measure up to 70 meters in height.

This undisputed destination of best tourist attractions in Colombia was declared a World Heritage Site by Unesco is a must on any list if you are a nature lover, enjoy bird watching and crave fresh mountain air.

When traveling here, you must pass through Salento, a picturesque town of colorful houses just 16 miles from Armenia, another great stop on your trip through Colombia.

Discover: Why Colombia is known as the land to feel the rhythm?
Now that you know about these six experiences, what are you waiting for? Let’s start crossing them off your bucket list!

The Falkland Islands have a rich history embracing maritime trade, sealing, whaling, cattle and sheep farming.

The English navigator, John Davis, aboard the “Desire” made the first confirmed sighting of the Islands in 1592. The first landing is attributed to the British Captain, John Strong, in 1690 at Bold Cove, Port Howard on West Falkland.

Early visitors were sealers, whalers and penguin hunters from different corners of the World. Many imported domestic animals and left these at various locations as a food source for future voyages. Cattle spread rapidly throughout the Islands. Travel was on horseback and South American gauchos made their mark. Stone and turf corrals were constructed and remains of these can be seen scattered across the Islands, particularly on East Falkland.

1833 saw the re-assertion by Britain of its sovereignty. By 1845 the capital had been moved to its present site and named Stanley, after the Colonial Secretary, Geoffrey Smith Stanley. Stanley became an important port for vessels involved in whaling and rounding Cape Horn. Settlements and farms were built around the Islands and sheep farming took over from cattle ranching as the mainstay of the economy.

Falkland Islanders participated in both World Wars. The World War One Battle of the Falklands is commemorated by a monument on Ross Road while the Cross of Sacrifice commemorates World War Two. For 74 days in 1982, Argentine troops occupied the Falkland Islands. A British Task Force was sent to recover the Islands. Fierce fighting took place on land, at sea and in the air with a number of Islanders aiding the British military wherever possible. Ultimately, Argentine Forces surrendered to the British Forces.

Today the Islands enjoy a healthy economy based on the sale of fishing licences, tourism and agricultural products including fine wool, mutton and beef.

Health
The Falkland Islands Government Health Service is responsible for the provision of all medical services including dental care. The general standard of health within the Falklands is rated as good and visitors to the Islands require no vaccinations. All health-care facilities are based at the King Edward VII Memorial Hospital (KEMH) in Stanley where medical staff are qualified to UK standards, including a full surgical team.

Other settlements and farms are equipped with medicine chests to meet everyday needs and take care of minor injuries. If necessary, arrangements will be made for transportation to Stanley.

Visitors to the Islands, other than those who are UK residents, are required to pay for any medical services received in the Islands. Travel insurance, inclusive of medical evacuation by plane, is needed to stay in the Falklands.

Over-the-counter medicines, including pain-killers, indigestion remedies and medicinal dressings, can be easily purchased in supermarkets in Stanley. If you take prescribed medicines, it is highly recommended that you bring sufficient supplies for the length of your stay and to allow for contingencies. It is also a good idea to bring a copy of your prescription. If you cannot find the medicine you need in the shops, the pharmacy at the KEMH will assist but please remember that if an item is not part of their stock it will need to be ordered from overseas and take a few days to arrive.

Banking and money
There is only one bank, the Standard Chartered Bank (SCB) located on Ross Road, Stanley. It opens weekdays until 3pm. The SCB can change money, transfer funds and issue cash advances against Visa and Mastercard credit cards. Charges apply and photographic identification is essential.

Local currency has the same value as UK sterling and both circulate freely in the Islands. US dollars are widely accepted and euros can be used in some places. Similarly, some credit and debit cards can be used in some locations. It’s a good idea to check your method of payment in advance and it is highly recommended to carry cash for use outside of Stanley.

Communications
All communication services, Island-wide, are provided by Sure.

If you have a contract phone you may be able to use the local mobile (cellphone) network with your own SIM card. The Sure website has an up-to-date list of roaming partners. Ensure in advance that roaming is activated. A pay-as-you-go service is also available and may be a cheaper option if you are visiting for more than a day. You will need a SIM-free (unlocked) phone. Mobile coverage is good in Stanley and a number of other locations but is not set up island-wide.

Stanley has a small number of public phone boxes which can be used with pre-paid cards available from some shopping outlets.

Wi-fi hotspots exist at many locations around the Islands. A wi-fi card is needed; these can usually be purchased at the place where a hot-spot is situated. Wi-fi does not exist everywhere. Getting away from wi-fi may be an attraction but if access is really important to you, check the Sure website for the latest information on availability.

Entry and Exit requirements
All visitors require a passport valid for the length of their stay.

Land-based travellers should also have travel insurance (inclusive of evacuation by plane), a return ticket, evidence of accommodation and sufficient personal funds for their time in the Islands. A small number of nationalities require a visa. A departure tax must be paid on embarking from the international airport. Payable in cash in £FK, £GB, euros or $US (Currently £26). This can also be paid by card for debit or credit, Visa and MasterCard only.

Further information is available from the Falkland Islands Customs and Immigration Department.

Biosecurity
Biosecurity is concerned with preventing new pests, diseases or invasive species from entering the Islands.

Visitors are respectfully asked not to bring risk foods into the Islands and to check their clothes and equipment for risk organisms. Risk foods include meat and poultry products, unpasteurised dairy products, eggs, uncooked vegetables and some fruits. Risk organisms can be spread from dirty footwear, clothing, bags and fishing equipment. Seeds and insects are not always easy to spot and may be inadvertently brought in and transferred from island to island.

Language
The official language of the Islands is English.

Many nationalities are represented in the Islands, therefore a range of languages can be found, albeit spoken by just a small number of individuals. In an emergency situation, efforts will be made to find a suitable translator.

Electricity supply
The electricity supply is 240v, 50hz with a standard UK 3-pin plug.

The Falkland Islands feature on itineraries for many cruise companies. Ships visiting the Islands vary greatly in size from small ice-breaking yachts to large, luxury vessels with passenger numbers from as little as ten to as many as three thousand.

Small vessels usually include the Falklands as part of an Antarctic route incorporating South Georgia and the Antarctic peninsula. Most will call in to one or more of the outlying islands, offering fantastic wildlife viewing opportunities and exhilarating walks along hills, cliff-tops or around the shoreline. Zodiac craft (inflatable small boats) provide transport from ship to shore.

Large ships generally tour South America with a stop in the Falklands en route around Cape Horn.

All vessels have the Island’s capital Stanley, scheduled as part of the tour. Passengers may arrive ashore by tender, inflatable zodiac or disembark directly at Stanley’s floating dock facility. The Visitor Centre is the ideal starting point for any visit, providing information about the city and connecting visitors with tours and transport. Tenders arrive at pontoons directly in front of the Centre. The floating dock is a short bus-ride with courtesy transport provided.

Shore excursions can be booked on board ship which is the recommended option for anyone keen to take a tour. The range on offer is tremendous from various trips to penguin colonies and farms, Stanley’s highlights by bus, battlefield and walking tours.

Small buses run regularly to the nearby penguin colony at Gypsy Cove and the city is easy to explore on foot but to get the best from your visit, a tour with a local guide is highly recommended. Stanley’s population is relatively small and many hands turn-to when a large ship calls. Some guides can be found at the Visitor Centre but advance booking is essential to guarantee an excursion on a busy day.

Early history
The first human inhabitants of Guyana probably entered the highlands during the 1st millennium BCE. Among the earliest settlers were groups of Arawak, Carib, and possibly Warao (Warrau). The early communities practiced shifting agriculture supplemented by hunting. Explorer Christopher Columbus sighted the Guyana coast in 1498, and Spain subsequently claimed, but largely avoided, the area between the Orinoco and Amazon deltas, a region long known as the Wild Coast. It was the Dutch who finally began European settlement, establishing trading posts upriver in about 1580. By the mid-17th century the Dutch had begun importing slaves from West Africa to cultivate sugarcane. In the 18th century the Dutch, joined by other Europeans, moved their estates downriver toward the fertile soils of the estuaries and coastal mud flats. Laurens Storm van ’s Gravesande, governor of Essequibo from 1742 to 1772, coordinated these development efforts.

Guyana changed hands with bewildering frequency during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars (mostly between the British and the French) from 1792 to 1815. During a brief French occupation, Longchamps, later called Georgetown, was established at the mouth of the Demerara River; the Dutch renamed it Stabroek and continued to develop it. The British took over in 1796 and remained in possession, except for short intervals, until 1814, when they purchased Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo, which in 1831 were united as the colony of British Guiana.

British rule
When the slave trade was abolished in 1807, there were about 100,000 slaves in Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo. After full emancipation in 1838, black freedmen left the plantations to establish their own settlements along the coastal plain. The planters then imported labour from several sources, the most productive of whom were the indentured workers from India. Indentured labourers who earned their freedom settled in coastal villages near the estates, a process that became established in the late 19th century during a serious economic depression caused by competition with European sugar beet production. The importation of indentured labourers from India exemplifies the connection between Guiana’s history and the British imperial history of the other Anglophone countries in the Caribbean region.

Settlement proceeded slowly, but gold was discovered in 1879, and a boom in the 1890s helped the colony. The North West District, an 8,000-square-mile (21,000-square-km) area bordering on Venezuela that was organized in 1889, was the cause of a dispute in 1895, when the United States supported Venezuela’s claims to that mineral- and timber-rich territory. Venezuela revived its claims on British Guiana in 1962, an issue that went to the United Nations for mediation in the early 1980s but still had not been resolved in the early 21st century.

The British inherited from the Dutch a complicated constitutional structure. Changes in 1891 led to progressively greater power’s being held by locally elected officials, but reforms in 1928 invested all power in the governor and the Colonial Office. In 1953 a new constitution—with universal adult suffrage, a bicameral elected legislature, and a ministerial system—was introduced.

From 1953 to 1966 the political history of the colony was stormy. The first elected government, formed by the People’s Progressive Party (PPP) and led by Cheddi Jagan, seemed so pro-communist that the British suspended the constitution in October 1953 and dispatched troops. The constitution was not restored until 1957. The PPP split along ethnic lines, Jagan leading a predominately South Asian party and Forbes Burnham leading a party of African descendants, the People’s National Congress (PNC). The elections of 1957 and 1961 returned the PPP with working majorities. From 1961 to 1964 severe rioting, involving bloodshed between rival Afro-Guyanese and South Asian groups, and a long general strike led to the return of British troops.

Independence of Guyana
To answer the PNC allegation that the existing electoral system unduly favoured the South Asian community, the British government introduced for the elections of December 1964 a new system of proportional representation. Thereafter the PNC and a smaller, more conservative party formed a coalition government, led by Burnham, which took the colony into independence under its new name, Guyana, on May 26, 1966. The PNC gained full power in the general election of 1968, which was characterized by questionable rolls of overseas voters and widespread claims of electoral impropriety.

On February 23, 1970, Guyana was proclaimed a cooperative republic within the Commonwealth. A president was elected by the National Assembly, but Burnham retained executive power as prime minister. Burnham declared his government to be socialist and in the later 1970s sought to reorder the government in his favour. In 1978 one of the most bizarre incidents in modern history occurred in Guyana when some 900 members of a religious community known as the Peoples Temple committed mass suicide in their Jonestown commune at the behest of their leader, Jim Jones.

In 1980, under a new constitution that provided for a unicameral legislature, Burnham became executive president, with still wider powers, after an election in which international observers detected widespread fraud. Two major assassinations also occurred during this time—Jesuit priest and journalist Bernard Darke was killed in July 1979, and prominent historian and political leader Walter Rodney was murdered in June 1980. Many observers accused Burnham of involvement in the killings. In the following years Burnham faced an economy shattered by the depressed demand for bauxite and sugar and a restive populace suffering from severe commodity shortages and a near breakdown of essential public services. Burnham enforced austerity measures, and he began leaning toward Soviet-bloc countries for support. When he died in 1985, Burnham was succeeded by the prime minister, Hugh Desmond Hoyte, who pledged to continue Burnham’s policies. In elections held that year, Hoyte won the presidency by a wide margin, but once again charges of vote fraud were raised.

Ethnic groups
South Asians form the largest ethnic group in the country, representing about two-fifths of the population. Their ancestors arrived mostly as indentured labour from India to replace Africans in plantation work. Today South Asians remain the mainstay of plantation agriculture, and many are independent farmers and landowners; they also have done well in trade and are well represented among the professions.

Afro-Guyanese (Guyanese of African descent) make up about three-tenths of the population. They abandoned the plantations after full emancipation in 1838 to become independent peasantry or town dwellers. People of mixed ancestry constitute about one-fifth of the population. While every possible ethnic mixture can be found in Guyana, mulattoes (people of mixed African and European ancestry) are the most common.

The indigenous peoples of Guyana constitute about one-tenth of the population. They are grouped into coastal and interior groups. Coastal groups include the Warao (Warrau), the Arawak, and the Carib. Peoples of the interior include the Wapisiana (Wapishana), the Arekuna, the Macusí (Macushí), and many more in the forest areas. The Macusí and the Wapisiana are the most prominent in the Rupununi Savanna region. Sizable concentrations of Indians inhabit the far west along the border with Venezuela and Brazil. They are rarely seen in the populated coastal areas, although some have mixed with the Afro-Guyanese and South Asians. Since 1970, traditional Indian lands near the international borders have come under government control, although Indians continue to hold village lands informally throughout Guyana’s interior. Major concessions to logging and gold-mining companies starting in the late 20th century have damaged the lands and polluted the rivers of many Indian groups, forcing some to leave and seek work in Venezuela and Brazil.

Like the South Asians, many Chinese and Portuguese people also entered Guyana originally as agricultural labourers, but they are now rarely found outside the towns. They are active in business and the professions, and their influence is disproportionate to their numbers; they have not been increasing, however, and together they constitute only a tiny percentage of the population. Brazilians represent a small but growing minority group.

Languages and religion
The official and principal language is English, but a creole patois is spoken throughout the country. Hindi and Urdu are heard occasionally among older South Asians. The major religions are Christian (chiefly Anglican and Roman Catholic) and Hindu. Various forms of Protestant Christianity made inroads in the 20th century, mainly in Georgetown. There is also a sizable minority of Muslims, most of whom are of South Asian descent. Indigenous religions are still practiced by some of the Indian peoples.

Cultural milieu
The national social structure was inherited from the period of British colonial rule, under which the majority of South Asian and Afro-Guyanese labourers were directed by European planters and government officials. A poorly defined local middle class composed of teachers, professionals, and civil servants and including a disproportionate number of Chinese and Portuguese emerged during colonialism. Since independence the elite of the ruling political party has replaced the European plantocracy at the apex of Guyana’s social order. Indigenous peoples remain apart from the country’s social structure as they did under the British, but their culture, which remains uninfluenced by national politics, is recognized as an important element in Guyanese museum displays and as an inspiration in local music and art.

Daily life and social customs
Daily life in Guyana centres on family groups; notably, the matriarchal family among Afro-Guyanese contrasts with the patriarchal South Asian family. Daily dress normally does not distinguish one group from another. Guyana’s cuisine is a blend of South Asian, South American, and Chinese dishes that make liberal use of fiery locally grown chiles and of fresh tropical fruits and vegetables. A typical dish is pepperpot, a stew made of meat (usually beef, mutton, or pork), potatoes, and peppers laced with cassareep (a sauce concocted from cassava juice and spices). The Guyanese advise that anyone who braves the dish should keep a supply of iced beer and locally produced rums nearby.

The arts of Guyana
Arawak and Carib crafts are sold in markets throughout the country. Their brightly coloured textiles, paintings, and intricate baskets are also popular exports.

Guyanese writers have made noteworthy contributions to literature. The works of Wilson Harris, Edgar Mittelhölzer, Walter Rodney, and A.J. Seymour are among the foremost. The best known of them, E.R. Braithwaite, settled in London in the 1950s, and it was there that he wrote his best-selling novel To Sir, with Love (1959), which told of a Guyanese schoolteacher’s adventures in a tough London East End high school. (The movie version [1967] stars Sidney Poitier.) Like Braithwaite, many other 20th-century Guyanese writers emigrated, especially to the United States and England.

Many of Guyana’s leading musicians also have established large followings in the country’s expatriate communities, particularly in London and New York City.

Cultural institutions
Cultural institutions are concentrated in Georgetown. The city’s Guyana Museum includes the Guyana Zoo, which has an impressive collection of animals, including harpy eagles and manatees. The Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology, also in the capital, contains artifacts of the country’s various indigenous cultures. The Guyanese Heritage Museum in Kastev houses a collection of 18th- and 19th-century Guyanese maps, coins, and books. The Rupununi Weavers Society Museum is situated near the town of Lethem on the Brazilian border; it displays textiles made by the Wapisiana and Macusí groups.

Paraguay was discovered in 1524 by the Spanish advance, Alejo García, forming the “Giant Province of the Indies”. Between the discovery and subsequent operations, the best known names at that time were Sebastián Gaboto, Pedro de Mendoza, Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Juan de Salazar de Espinoza, Juan de Ayolas, Domingo Martínez de Irala and others who had gravitant performance in the founding forts and towns and began, in alliance with indigenous communities, a process of social conformation marked by the strength of the conquerors and the evangelizing action of the Catholic Church. The first missionaries were from the order of San Francisco de Asís, then came the priests of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits, both evangelizers left a cultural legacy of great importance for Paraguay.

Spanish rule came to an end in 1811 with the May 14 revolution, when a group of patriots decided to cradle an independent and sovereign country.

The buildings built in the second half of the 19th century are still preserved.

The new Republic took constitutional status with the Government of Don Carlos Antonio López in 1844 and experienced surprising economic, technical and social development. At that time services such as the railroad, merchant navigation, the telegraph were established. Large and beautiful buildings were built, a shipyard and the first steel plant in America were installed.

Currently, Paraguay is a Social State of Law with a democratic regime, whose government is exercised by three powers: Executive, Legislative and Judicial. The territory is divided into 17 departments governed by a governor, a departmental board, and each district has a local government headed by a municipal mayor.

Multiculturalism makes Paraguay a peculiar and different country, in continuous evolution. With autochthonous populations of five linguistic families, Guaraní prevailing, with the presence of immigrants from various countries of the world, they contributed to the first Spanish-Guaraní mix, an extraordinary richness in cultural manifestations.

Ethnic groups
Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations of any South American country. The vast majority of inhabitants are almost all mestizo (of mixed European and Indian ancestry). They pride themselves on their Guaraní descent, although the admixture of European strains is prominent. About 300,000 Brazilians, many of them farmers, immigrated to the Eastern Region in the 1970s because land in Paraguay was cheaper than in Brazil. Other immigrants have come from western Europe, particularly Germany, Italy, and Spain, and from Japan, China (Hong Kong), South Korea, and Taiwan. There are about 30,000 German-speaking Mennonites in Paraguay, about half of whom live in colonies in the Chaco.

Indians make up about 2 percent of Paraguay’s population. Ethnically distinct groups include the Pai-Tavyterá, Mbyá, Aché, and Chiripá in the east and the Toba, Maskoy, Lengua, Nivaklé, Tapieté, Ayoreo, and Chamacoco in the Chaco. Other smaller Indian groups reside throughout Paraguay. Some are threatened with extinction through forced assimilation and the takeover of their traditional lands by Brazilian loggers and landless peasants. The welfare of the country’s indigenous peoples is the official responsibility of the Paraguayan Indian Institute. Many Indians also receive support from missionary groups.

Languages
As established in the 1992 constitution, Spanish and Guaraní are the official languages of Paraguay. Guaraní is spoken by nearly nine-tenths of the population, but it has only been used as a language of instruction in schools since 1996. Spanish is used almost exclusively in government and business. At least half of the population is bilingual. The constitution also recognizes other Indian languages as part of the country’s heritage.

Religion
About nine-tenths of the population professes adherence to Roman Catholicism. There is also a sizable minority of Evangelical Protestants. The constitution recognizes no official religion and emphasizes the state’s independence from the Roman Catholic Church.

The main characteristic of Paraguayan culture is its fusion of both the Guaraní and Spanish traditions. Folklore, the arts, and literature reflect this dual origin. The country’s outstanding handicraft is the production of ñandutí lace, which is thought to represent a combination of 16th-century needle lace-making techniques from Europe with Guaraní traditions.

Daily life and social customs
Social life tends to revolve around the family. Godparents are particularly important; if parents become unable to provide for their children, godparents are expected to assume responsibility for them.

Paraguayan cuisine reflects traditional Guaraní cooking styles. Beef dishes and freshwater river fish are popular. Other typical foods are soups, often with meat, and various breads, especially chipa, which is flavoured with cheese and egg. Corn (maize) is a staple ingredient in many dishes, including sopa paraguaya, a pie made from corn, eggs, and milk; avatí mbaipy, a corn soup; and mbaipy he-é, a dessert made from corn, milk, and molasses. Beer and caña, a cane sugar spirit, are popular drinks. Yerba maté, the local herbal tea, is consumed year-round—chilled in summer, hot in winter. A common pastime is drinking tereré (a bitter tea made from the same type of leaves that are used to brew yerba maté) from a shared gourd or from a hollowed cow’s horn, or guampa, which often is beautifully carved.

Outside Asunción the pace of life is slow. Religious celebrations throughout the country are well attended; for example, thousands of Paraguayans visit Caacupé on December 8 to participate in the city’s annual celebration of the festival of the Virgin of Miracles. The Feast of St. John (San Juan Ara), on June 24, is celebrated with traditional games, one of which includes walking on hot coals. The country’s Afro-Paraguayan community at Kamba Kua celebrates an annual music and dance festival. Throughout the country on August 1 it is a tradition to imbibe carrulim, a Guaraní drink made of caña, ruda (a root plant that produces yellow flowers and is used mostly as a medicine), and lemon. Those three ingredients, according to Guaraní beliefs, bring happiness, drive away evil, and protect a person’s health. Many Paraguayans believe that the month of August brings misfortune and bad luck to those who do not drink the concoction. Herb vendors and kiosks sell carrulim in specially prepared bottles in towns and villages each August 1.

The arts
Paraguay has a distinctive musical tradition, especially of songs and ballads. Paraguayan songs, which tend to be languid and sentimental, were made popular by artists such as Los Paraguayos and Luis Alberto del Paraná in the 1950s. Typical music for dancing includes polkas, courtship dances of Bohemian folk origin, and the galopa, a variant of which is the bottle dance, so called because the dancers balance bottles on their heads. José Asunción Flores (1904–72) was the country’s most-outstanding composer and harpist. He invented the guaranía, a musical style that features haunting and melancholic melodies that encapsulate the Paraguayan identity. Feliz Pérez Cardozo and Emiliano R. Fernández are also noted for their musical compositions.

The number of books published in Paraguay increased significantly in the 1980s and particularly after the coup in 1989. Paraguay’s most-famous author is Augusto Roa Bastos, whose novel Yo, el supremo (“I, the Supreme”; 1974), based on the life of the 19th-century dictator José Gaspar de Francia, won wide acclaim.

Cultural institutions
Paraguay’s principal cultural institutions are located in Asunción. There are learned societies concerned with Paraguayan and Guaraní history and culture as well as various other societies and research institutes. The Normal School of Music, the Conservatory of Music, the National Academy of Fine Arts, and the Asunción Symphony Orchestra are major arts institutions. Paraguay has museums of ethnography, natural history, and military history as well as art galleries with collections of the work of Paraguayan artists such as Carlos Colombino and Ricardo Migliorisi.

Library services are centred in Asunción. The largest collections are in the National Library and the National Archive as well as in the private Our Lady of the Assumption Catholic University.

Peru is one of the great originating centers of ancient culture, along with Mexico, Mesopotamia, India, and China. Paleolithic man left his first traces here and began to develop villages of hunters-collectors around 6,000 BC (as seen in Lauricocha, Huanuco). Farming settlements began to form around 2,500 BC, growing manioc, lima beans, quinoa, potatoes, cotton and maize.

Prior to the arrival of the Conquistadors from Europe, Peruvian history is divided into five stages or horizons:
Early Horizon (1200 BC – 200 BC): Small states were formed, with the elite holding economic and religious power. Chavin de Huantar (Ancash) belongs to this stage, with its temple of underground passages that include monochromatic pottery and megalithic art. Other key remains are those of Caral (Lima) and Sechin (Ancash).

Intermediate Early Horizon (200 BC – 600 AD): This is the era of the great centers of regional development. The important cultures are those of Tiahuanaco (Puno), Mochica and Lambayeque (Lambayeque and La Libertad), Nasca and Paracas (Ica). Tiahuanaco is known for its Chullpas or funeral towers at Sillustani (Puno); the Mochica are famous for the Royal Tombs of the Lord of Sipan; the Lambayeque built the pyramids of Tucume; the Nascas made remarkable pottery and drew the mysterious Lines in the desert; and the Paracas wove wonderful textiles.

Middle Horizon (600 AD – 900 AD): The epoch when the Wari culture spread throughout the Andean region. Evidence lies in the citadels of Wari (Ayacucho), Pikillacta (Cuzco) and Marca Huamachuco (La Libertad).

Late Intermediate Horizon (900 AD – 1400 AD): This period is marked by a group of regional states with well defined cultural features. The important cultures are those of Chimu and Chincha on the coast; Cajamarca and Huanta in the highlands; and Chachapoyas in the north jungle. The structures of this period are the Chimu citadel of Chan Chan (La Libertad), the funeral center of the Windows of Otuzco in Cajamarca, and the Chanchapoyan citadel of Kuelap (in Amazonas).

Late Horizon (1400 AD – 1532 AD): This is the period predominated by the Incas, native to Cusco, who built an imperial form of government throughout the entire Andean world. Their main legacy is the architectural contribution in the buildings and constructions in Cusco. This period concludes in 1532 with the Spanish Conquest.

The Colonial period developed between 1532 and 1821, from which there is a magnificent artistic heritage. Examples include paintings such as those of the so-called Cusco School; architecture as in the Santo Domingo convent in Cusco (built on the ancient Inca temple of Koricancha) and the convent of Santa Catalina in Arequipa. Independence was declared on July 28, 1821 and later consolidated with the victory of the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824.

A center of cultural dissemination. The ancient inhabitants of this territory began domesticating animals around 6,000 BC, and to develop farming even earlier in 8,500 BC. This process was simultaneous on the coast, in the Andes and in Amazonia. In fact, the Andean area which we call ancient Peru – where the cultures of Chavin, Tiahuanaco, Cajamarca, Recuay, Moche, Chimu, Lambayeque, Paracas, Chincha, Nasca and Wari developed and were later joined under the Inca Empire- is one of the world’s first and greatest agricultural centers and one of the major areas from which universal culture spread, together with Mesopotamia, China, India and Mesoamerica.

Throughout the pre-Hispanic period, the peoples of Peru were largely isolated from one another by the rugged topography of the country. At least three times, however, a unifying culture spread across the Andes. Beginning c. 1000 BCE, the Chavín culture permeated the region, emanating possibly from the northern ceremonial site of Chavín de Huántar. After about 600 CE, the Huari civilization, based at a site of the same name near modern Ayacucho, dominated most of the central Andean region. Finally, the Inca empire developed, eventually to control all of the territory from northern Ecuador to central Chile.

Ethnic groups
Mestizos (persons of mixed Indian and European descent) constitute about three-fifths of Peru’s population, and Quechua Indians make up about another one-fourth. There are also small minority populations of people of European ancestry, Aymara Indians, people of Japanese ancestry, and people of other ethnicities.

Modern Peru’s complex ethnic mosaic is rooted in its history. The Spanish conquerors dominated the indigenous Indians and colonial Peruvian society, including politics, religion, and economics. They brought their European culture, the Spanish language, and the Roman Catholic religion to the region. The Spaniards introduced some African slaves, but the number of slaves transported to this part of South America was not significant; their descendants are found mainly in Lima and a few central coastal valleys. Following independence (1824) and the prohibition of slavery (1854), Chinese arrived to work as farm labourers, and new groups of Spaniards, northern Europeans, and Japanese were among other arrivals. These diverse ethnic groups have tended to intermarry over time.

Differences in lifestyles and attitudes are pronounced. Peruvians of Spanish descent and mestizos live mainly along the coast and control most of the country’s wealth. Typically, a small group of people of European ancestry hold the main power in government and industry. Mestizo culture is a blend of Indian and European ways known as criollo. The Spanish-speaking mestizos make up the middle class of Peruvian society. They hold managerial, administrative, and professional jobs, but some are also small landowners and labourers. The Indians of the Sierra live in extreme poverty in a harsh environment; many remain both indifferent to and outside the mainstream affairs of the country. Land reform acts in the 1960s and ’70s have brought some improvement, such as the dismantling of haciendas—typically large estates with absentee owners—and reallocation of the land in smaller segments to individuals or cooperatives. However, many highland Indians still shepherd llama herds or work tiny plots of land to eke out a living. The lowland Indians of Amazonia occupy a social position similar to that of the highland Indians.

Languages
During the pre-Hispanic period, the Inca spread their language, Quechua, across the highlands and along the coast, although some groups near Lake Titicaca spoke Aymara at the time of the Spanish conquest. Quechua and Aymara are still prevalent and have official usage, with Spanish, in regions where they are heavily spoken. Tropical forest areas were outside Incan influence, and the numerous languages and dialects now spoken in the Amazon region reflect the diverse linguistic heritage of the tropical forest peoples. Like their Inca ancestors, the overwhelming number of Indians read neither their own nor any other language. In major cities and tourist areas, however, English and other European languages are commonly spoken.

Religion
Peru’s constitution provides for freedom of religion. More than three-fourths of Peruvians are Roman Catholic; between one-tenth and one-fifth are Evangelical Christians; other Protestants and followers of traditional beliefs form small religious minorities.

Ancient Peru had various polytheistic and pantheistic religions. The most important gods were Viracocha (lord, creator, and father of men) and Pachamama (Earth mother). The Sun, Moon, and such phenomena as lightning and mountains were also worshipped. Each culture raised temples to honour its local divinity.

The Hispanic conquest of the Incas brought new religious traditions to the Andean area. The Spanish indoctrinated the Indians and spread Roman Catholicism, built hundreds of churches, and held fiestas for patron saints in each village. The people were not strict in their practices, however. Protestant sects proliferated during the 20th century, and the Indians have mixed many pagan beliefs into the Roman Catholic rituals to produce a syncretic religion rich in traditions.

Peru has sparked a series of world records that would astonish even the most skeptical researcher. Due to the astounding variety of climates and ecosystems, it is among the world’s top eight nations in terms of biodiversity where one can find 84 of the 104 life zones existing around the planet.

Thirteen percent of the Amazon tropical forests are in Peru, and Peru ranks 8th in the world for total forest area. The Colca and Cotahuasi canyons, in Arequipa, vie for first place as the deepest on earth. The largest river in the world, the Amazon, begins in Peru and most of the world’s highest navigable lake, Titicaca, is within Peruvian territory.

Peru is one of only 12 countries in the world that rank as biological megadiversity. There are almost 25,000 species of plants (10% of the world total), of which 30% are only found in Peru.

In wildlife, it ranks top in diversity of fish (2,000 species, equal to 10% of the world’s species), first in birds (1,816 species, including the condor).

Peru is also home to about 10% of all mammals and reptiles living on the planet and more than 20% of the earth’s birds. The late Theodore Parker III, famous American field ornithologist once said “Peru offers bird enthusiasts more than any other country in the world…Being here is like being a child visiting a huge store filled with new and fascinating toys. He was right.

Third in amphibians (379 species, including the black crocodile), third in mammals (462 species, including the ocelot and black spectacled bear), and first in butterflies.

It ranks second in the world for its variety of primates 35 species, including the unique woolly, yellow-tailed monkey.

There are 460 species of mammals that are catalogued as original to Peru, 1,745 species of birds, 297 species of reptiles, 332 amphibians, 1,800 ocean and fresh water fish, and thousands of species of mollusks, spiders and insects.

The insects also deserve special mention. On one single tree in the Tambopata amazon in Peru`s southeast, scientists identified over 5000 different species, including more ant species that can be found in all of the british isles. Amazing, right?

Early period
Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory that is now Uruguay supported a small population estimated at no more than 5,000 to 10,000. The principal groups were the seminomadic Charrúa, Chaná (Chanáes), and Guaraní Indians. The Guaraní, who were concentrated in the subtropical forests of eastern Paraguay, established some settlements in northern Uruguay. The Charrúa moved to the shore in summer to fish and gather clams, fruits, and roots and moved inland in winter to hunt deer, rheas, and smaller game with bolas (stones connected by short ropes that are thrown to ensnare prey) and bows and arrows. Bands of eight to 12 families under a chief lived in villages of five to six houses made of matted windscreens. The Charrúa were known for their ferocity in battle, which they exploited to expand hunting grounds and capture women and children from other villages.

The first European to explore Uruguay was the Spanish navigator Juan Díaz de Solís in 1516, who, along with several of his men, was killed and eaten by Charrúa or Guaraní warriors. Ferdinand Magellan anchored at the future site of Montevideo in 1520, and Sebastian Cabot led a Spanish expedition up the Río de la Plata in 1526, but they found the Banda Oriental del Río Uruguay (“East Bank of the Uruguay River”) unattractive for settlement because of a lack of mineral wealth and the absence of Indians who could be readily enslaved or compelled to serve European interests. Jesuit and Franciscan missions were not established in Uruguay until the 1620s. By that time, however, the indigenous population had begun to collapse, as European diseases killed thousands.

Cattle from neighbouring regions, allowed to roam freely in Uruguayan territory, multiplied over the years until their numbers reached the millions. This process is said to have originated in 1603, when a governor of Paraguay, Hernando Arias de Saavedra, shipped a number of cattle and horses downstream from Asunción and the animals were landed on the Uruguayan riverbank. They were subsequently hunted for their hides by transient gauchos of mestizo ancestry. Groups of bandeirantes (explorers and slave hunters) from Portuguese Brazil also made incursions into the region and occasionally attacked the missions there. In 1680 the Portuguese established Colônia do Sacramento (Spanish: Colonia del Sacramento) on the Río de la Plata opposite Buenos Aires. There they carried on a contraband trade with Spanish settlers, who were collecting great quantities of silver from the mines of Upper Peru (now Bolivia). Spanish authorities countered this move by founding San Felipe de Montevideo as a fortified city in 1726 and attacking Colonia, which subsequently changed hands several times before being ceded to Spain in 1777. Montevideo became the major Spanish port of the South Atlantic, and the process of dividing the Banda Oriental into huge unfenced ranches began. In 1776 the Banda Oriental became part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the capital of which was Buenos Aires; however, Montevideo was still allowed to send shipments directly to Spain rather than clearing them first at Buenos Aires.

By 1800 there were approximately 10,000 people in Montevideo and another 20,000 elsewhere in Uruguay. About one-third of the total were African slaves, most of whom worked on estancias (ranches), in saladeros (meat-salting operations), and in households. Uruguay’s small but growing middle class included petty merchants, artisans, and military officers of mestizo and European ancestry. At the apex of society were wealthy traders, bankers, estancieros (ranch owners), and high-ranking government officials. Most of the elite originated from—or principally resided in—Catalonia, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, and other Spanish European lands. Few Indian groups survived into the 19th century; the last large-scale massacre of Indian peoples occurred at Salsipuedes in 1831, and by mid century scant vestiges of indigenous culture remained.

The struggle for national identity
Montevideo, with its Spanish military and naval contingents, was a royalist stronghold when a movement for independence broke out in Buenos Aires in 1810. In the interior of the Banda Oriental, the fight against Spain was led from 1811 by José Gervasio Artigas, commander of the Blandengues, a mounted corps that the Spaniards had originally created to police the region. Artigas’s small army, which soon included a battalion of freed African slaves, was supported by rural inhabitants, antiroyalist Montevideo leaders, and an army from Buenos Aires. Following victories in the interior and in Montevideo, Artigas promoted a loose confederation of provinces of la Plata, but he also considered forming a rival confederation centring on Montevideo. These plans, coupled with Artigas’s growing power and egalitarian policies (including redistributing estanciero land to freed slaves and other poor Uruguayans), made him a threat to elites in Uruguay and centralists in Buenos Aires, who acquiesced when Portuguese Brazilian forces took over the Banda Oriental in 1820, and Artigas was driven into exile.

“Brazilianization” was resisted within the Banda Oriental and by Uruguayan exiles as well. Argentines felt increasingly threatened by the Brazilian presence, and their government was compelled to support Juan Antonio Lavalleja, one of Artigas’s exiled officers, and his “33 orientales” when they crossed the river to free their homeland in 1825. The ensuing war was a stalemate, but British diplomats mediated a settlement in 1827, and in 1828 a treaty was ratified creating Uruguay as a separate state and a buffer between Brazil and Argentina; the nation’s strategic location also served British interests by guaranteeing that the Río de la Plata would remain an international waterway. On July 18, 1830, when the constitution for the Oriental State of Uruguay was approved, the country had scarcely 74,000 inhabitants.

Uruguay’s first years of independence were disastrous. Twenty years of war and depredation had greatly reduced cattle numbers, and the lands and fortunes of many colonial families had been destroyed. Both Argentina and Brazil still coveted Uruguay. The factions of the first and second presidents, José Fructuoso Rivera and Manuel Oribe, battled each other in what became known as the Guerra Grande (“Great War”). Oribe’s adherents, who displayed white colours, became the Blanco (“White”) Party and controlled the interior. Rivera and his followers used red colours and became the Colorado (“Red”) Party, based in Montevideo. The Blancos, supported by armies of the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, besieged Montevideo during the period 1843–51. The Colorados were aided first by France and England, then by Brazil. When in 1851 the Guerra Grande ended without a clear victory for either side, the Uruguayan interior was devastated, the government was bankrupt, and the disappearance of an independent Uruguay had become a real possibility. Intellectuals wanted to abolish the political parties that had brought the country to such a low point, but the war had made too deep an impact on ordinary Uruguayans, who had become polarized into Colorados or Blancos. In 1865 the Colorados, aided by a Brazilian army, ousted the Blancos from power; however, the Paraguayan dictator, seeing that action as a threat to the regional balance of power, sparked the War of the Triple Alliance (1864/65–70), in which Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina combined to defeat Paraguay. Uruguayan commerce was disrupted by the war, as well as by persistent political disputes, a civil war known as the Revolution of the Lances (1868–72), and Brazilian and Argentine involvement in Uruguayan affairs.

Modernization and reform
Development accelerated during the latter part of the 19th century as increasing numbers of immigrants established businesses and bought land. Partly through their efforts, sheep were introduced to graze together with cattle, ranches were fenced, and pedigreed bulls and rams were imported to improve livestock. Earnings from wool (which became the leading export in 1884), hides, and dried beef encouraged the British to invest in railroad building and also helped to modernize Montevideo—notably in its public utilities and transportation system—which thereby encouraged additional immigration. In 1876 the Uruguayan armed forces took over the government and, aided by improved communications, began to establish firmer control over the interior. However, public support for the regime eventually waned because of the brutality and corruption of some of its leaders, and a civilian Colorado government returned to power in 1890.

Blanco demands for a larger role in government escalated into the Revolution of 1897, led by Aparicio Saravia, which ended when the Colorado president, Juan Idiarte Borda, was killed by an assassin not associated with the Blancos. Although conflicts between Colorados and Blancos continued to impede economic development, by 1900 Uruguay’s population grew to one million—a 13-fold increase over the level of 1830. The Colorado leader José Batlle y Ordóñez was elected president in 1903. The following year the Blancos led a rural revolt, and eight bloody months of fighting ensued before Saravia was killed in battle and government forces emerged victorious. In 1905 the Colorados won the first largely transparent legislative election in 30 years, and domestic stability was finally attained.

Batlle, who had become a Colorado hero, took advantage of the nation’s stability and growing economic prosperity to institute major reforms, including increasing state intervention in economic matters. His administration helped expand cattle ranching, reduce the nation’s dependence on imports and foreign capital, improve workers’ conditions through far-reaching social reforms, and expand education. In addition Batlle abolished the death penalty, allowed women to initiate divorce proceedings, augmented the rights of children born out of wedlock, and reduced the political influence of the Roman Catholic Church—reflecting growing trends toward social liberalization and secularization in Uruguay.

Batlle had two terms (1903–07 and 1911–15) in which to initiate his policies, but, realizing that his program might be reversed by a future president or dictator, he promoted a constitutional reform to end the presidency and replace it with a plural executive, the colegiado. Batlle’s audacious plan split the Colorados and reinvigorated the Blanco opposition, and in 1916 the colegiado was defeated in the country’s first election by secret ballot. Batlle retained a significant amount of prestige and support, however, which allowed him to strike a compromise that partly rescued the colegiado; thus, in a constitution promulgated in 1918, executive responsibility was split between the president and a National Council of Administration.

A consensus government emerged with policies that were more cautious than innovative, except in social legislation. Higher living standards were supported by a ranching economy that had stopped growing, a dilemma hidden by the high export prices of the late 1920s.

Ethnic groups and languages
Uruguayans are of predominantly European origin, mostly descendants of 19th- and 20th-century immigrants from Spain and Italy and, to a much lesser degree, from France and Britain. Earlier settlers had migrated from Argentina and Paraguay. Few direct descendants of Uruguay’s indigenous peoples remain, and mestizos (of mixed European and Indian ancestry) account for less than one-tenth of the population. Blacks and persons of mixed Black and white ancestry make up an even smaller proportion of the total.

Spanish is spoken throughout Uruguay, although in Rivera and other borderland towns close to Brazil an admixture of Portuguese and Spanish can be heard, often in a slang called portuñol, from the words português and español.

 

Religion
Nearly half of the people are at least nominally Roman Catholic. About one-third of the population adhere to other Christian faiths or are nondenominational Christians. About one-sixth of Uruguayans are agnostics or atheists. Jews, mostly in Montevideo, make up a small minority, which is nevertheless one of the larger Jewish communities in South America.

Uruguayan culture reflects some of the same characteristics found in neighbouring Argentina. Both countries are strongly European (notably Spanish and Italian) in their orientation, and, unlike many Latin American countries, Uruguay is minimally influenced by indigenous culture. The tradition of the gaucho (cowboy, usually a mestizo) has been an important element in the art and folklore of both countries. Uruguay’s theatre and music are broadly based in terms of support and participation.

 

Daily life and social customs
Beef is fundamental to Uruguayan cuisine, and the country is one of the world’s top consumers of red meat per capita. Barbecues (parrilladas) are ubiquitous. Popular foods include beef platters, steak sandwiches (chivitos), barbecued kidneys and sausages, and pastas. Locally produced soft drinks, beer, and wine are commonly served, as is clericó, a mixture of fruit juice and wine. Uruguay and Argentina share a national drink: maté (or yerba maté), a tea that is usually sipped from a gourd using a metal straw. Although some Uruguayan gauchos still dress in traditional trousers, ponchos, and wide-brimmed hats, most Uruguayans wear clothing styles that are also common to Europe and North America.

Uruguay’s main holidays are New Year’s Day (January 1), Epiphany (January 6), Labour Day (May 1), and Christmas (December 25). Among the major patriotic holidays are Constitution Day (July 18), Independence Day (August 25), and the commemoration (April 19) of the arrival in 1825 of anticolonial leader Juan Antonio Lavalleja and his band of 33 fighters.

 

The arts
José Enrique Rodó, a modernist, is considered Uruguay’s most significant literary figure. His book Ariel (1900), which stresses the importance of upholding spiritual over materialistic values, as well as resisting cultural dominance by Europe and the United States, continues to influence young writers. Outstanding among Latin American playwrights is Florencio Sánchez; his plays, written around the beginning of the 20th century and dealing with contemporary social problems, are still performed. From about the same period and somewhat later came the romantic poetry of Juan Zorrilla de San Martín, Juana de Ibarbourou, and Delmira Agustini and the short stories of Horacio Quiroga. The psychological stories of Juan Carlos Onetti have earned widespread critical praise, as have the writings of Mario Benedetti. Uruguay’s best-known contemporary writer is Eduardo H. Galeano, author of Las venas abiertas de América Latina (1971; The Open Veins of Latin America) and the trilogy Memoria del fuego (1982–87; Memory of Fire). Uruguayans of many classes and backgrounds enjoy reading historietas, comic books that often blend humour and fantasy with thinly veiled social criticism.

The folk and popular music of Uruguay shares with Argentina not only its gaucho roots but also the tango, a musical and dance style that originated in Argentina. One of the most famous tangos, “La cumparsita” (1917), was written by the Uruguayan composer Gerardo Matos Rodríguez. The candombe is a folk dance performed at Carnival mainly by Uruguayans of African ancestry. The guitar is the preferred musical instrument; and, in a popular contest called the payada, two singers, each with a guitar, take turns improvising verses to the same tune. Numerous radio stations and musical events reflect the popularity of rock music (mainly imported from the United States and Europe, though some Uruguayan bands enjoy wide followings) and Caribbean genres known as música tropical (“tropical music”). Early classical music in Uruguay showed heavy Spanish and Italian influence, but since the 20th century a number of composers of classical music, including Eduardo Fabini, Vicente Ascone, and Héctor Tosar, have made use of Latin American musical idioms.

The 19th-century painter Juan Manuel Blanes, whose works depict historical events, was the first Uruguayan artist to gain widespread recognition. The Post-Impressionist painter Pedro Figari achieved international renown for his pastel studies of subjects in Montevideo and the countryside. Blending elements of art and nature, the work of the landscape architect Leandro Silva Delgado has also earned international prominence.

Uruguay has a small but growing film industry, and movies such as Marcelo Bertalmío’s Los días con Ana (2000: “Days with Ana”) have earned international honours. New work is highlighted at the annual International Film Festival of Uruguay, held in Montevideo.

 

Cultural institutions
Montevideo, the cultural heart of the country, is home to Uruguay’s principal cultural institutions, including the National Library and the national museums of history, anthropology, natural history, and art. Several regional museums, such as the Museum of the Indian and Gaucho in Tacuarembó, have well-maintained historical collections. The government supports two symphony orchestras, the National Theatre, and schools of dramatic arts, fine arts, and ballet. Private dramatic and musical groups also perform in Montevideo and other cities.

The earliest inhabitants of Venezuela were food-gathering Indians who arrived in the Upper Paleolithic Period. Arawak and Carib Indians were prominent among the groups that arrived later. Nomadic hunting and fishing groups roamed the Lake Maracaibo basin, the Llanos, and the coast. The most technologically advanced Venezuelan Indians lived in farming communities in the Andes.

 

The colonial era
Christopher Columbus arrived in what is now Venezuela in 1498, during his third voyage to the New World. European explorers named the region Venezuela (“Little Venice”) after observing local Indian houses on stilts over water. During the first quarter-century of contact, the Europeans limited themselves to slave hunting and pearl fishing on the northeastern coast; the first permanent Spanish settlement, Cumaná, was not made until 1523. In the second quarter of the 16th century, the centre of activity shifted to the northwestern coast, where the Welser banking house of Augsburg, Germany, purchased exploration and colonization rights. The Germans failed to find precious metals and to occupy the area permanently, however, and Spain repossessed the zone in 1546. Legends of El Dorado (“The Golden One”) drove explorers into the Venezuelan interior, perhaps including the Spanish adventurer and renegade Lope de Aguirre, who is said to have attacked several villages there. The Englishman Sir Walter Raleigh sailed up the Orinoco River in search of the fabled city of gold reportedly ruled by El Dorado. Raleigh described his adventure in The Discoverie of Guiana (1596).

In the latter half of the 16th century, Spanish agriculturalists began to colonize the region by using encomiendas (semifeudal grants of land and Indian labourers). Caracas was founded in 1567, and by 1600 more than 20 settlements dotted the Venezuelan Andes and the Caribbean coast. During the 17th and 18th centuries, various Roman Catholic missionary orders gradually took over the Llanos and Maracaibo regions.

The colonial economy was based on agriculture and stock raising. Corn (maize), beans, and beef were the domestic food staples; sugar, cacao, tobacco, and hides were the principal exports. Spain’s European rivals (initially the French and English, followed by the Dutch) succeeded in taking over most of Venezuela’s commerce until the early 18th century, when Spain established a monopoly trading company. The interests of the latter, however, proved contrary to those of Venezuelan producers, who forced dissolution of the company during the 1780s.

Venezuelan society during the colonial era was headed by agents of the Spanish crown. Royal bureaucrats monopolized the top governing posts, and Spanish clergymen dominated the high church offices. However, Creoles (white descendents of Europeans born in the Americas) owned the land and other forms of wealth, and they used their power to hold the nonwhite races in bondage: mestizos (persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry) and mulattoes (of European and African ancestry) were generally without property, social status, or political influence; Indians performed forced labour on interior farms or were segregated on marginal lands; and black Africans were slaves on the coastal plantations. In theory, Venezuela was governed by the Spanish crown through the Audiencia of Santo Domingo in the 16th and 17th centuries and through the Viceroyalty of New Granada (at Bogotá) from its incorporation in 1717. In practice, however, the Venezuelans exercised some regional autonomy during the colonial era.

 

The independence movement
A group of Venezuelan Creoles boldly proclaimed their country an independent republic in 1797. Although their effort failed, it forewarned of the revolutionary movements that were soon to inflame Latin America.

In 1806 Francisco de Miranda—who had earlier fought under George Washington against the British, served as a general in the French Revolution, and fought with the French against Prussia and Russia—tried unsuccessfully to land on the Venezuelan coast with a group of mercenaries whom he had recruited in New York City. Revolutionary leaders recalled him to Gran Colombia four years later to take charge of a ruling junta, which drafted a constitution and established an independent nation. In the ensuing war with royalist forces, however, Miranda signed an armistice with Spain. Other revolutionary leaders viewed this action with contempt, and Miranda was subsequently turned over to the Spaniards, who sent him first to Puerto Rico and later to Spain, where he died in prison in 1816.

Early in 1813 the revolutionary junta appointed Simón Bolívar commander of the Venezuelan forces. Bolívar, a wealthy Creole landowner born in Caracas in 1783, had many reverses in his war against the Spanish. His forces were opposed by large royalist armies including a cavalry unit of llaneros (cowboys of the Llanos frontier), who were under the command of José Tomás Boves. In 1815 the Spanish general Pablo Morillo landed with an expeditionary force that spearheaded the reconquest of much of New Granada. Morillo administered the region in a heavy-handed fashion, however, and many of the Creole elites who had initially supported him soon conspired for his defeat. Llaneros and blacks also deserted the royalist cause and joined Bolívar, whose army was further augmented by a legion of British and Irish mercenaries; the new republican government of Haiti also sent aid. The Republic of Gran Colombia, with its capital at Bogotá, was proclaimed on December 17, 1819, with Bolívar as president. On June 24, 1821, Bolívar’s troops, reinforced by llanero cavalry under General José Antonio Páez, defeated the main royalist army at the Battle of Carabobo. The last of the royalist forces surrendered at Puerto Cabello on October 9, 1823. The following year Bolívar’s army marched south to liberate Peru, and in 1825 it freed Upper Peru (Bolivia) from Spanish rule. Venezuelans suffered greater casualties and endured more privations during the wars than did any other Latin American national group, because of the ferocity of battles on their own soil and the large number of Venezuelan troops who carried the struggle to other regions.

Immigration and ethnic composition
Venezuela is a country of immigrants. About two-thirds of the population is mestizo (of mixed European and Indian ancestry) or mulatto-mestizo (African, European, and Indian); about one-fifth of Venezuelans are of European lineage, and one-tenth have mainly African ancestry. The native Indian population is statistically small.

Prior to 1948 Venezuela had never openly encouraged non-Hispanic immigration, except for selective influxes of merchants, sailors, and entrepreneurs from neighbouring West Indian islands. As the petroleum industry grew, however, the government attempted to attract a wider range of people. During a 10-year period of open immigration (1948–58), Venezuela recruited agricultural and skilled workers from Spain, Italy, and Portugal; at the same time migration from Colombia to Venezuela also increased. Approximately one million immigrants entered the country during that time, although many of them eventually returned home. After 1958 the government tightened immigration controls to favour foreigners with high-level skills, yet during the 1960s Colombian labourers continued to move into the rural sector as replacements for Venezuelans who were leaving farms for the cities.

The government again shifted immigration policies in response to the mid-1970s petroleum boom, because there was a large demand for semiskilled and skilled labour in all sectors of the economy. At the same time, professional and technical workers and their families were leaving Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay because of political instability and persecution there, and many of them relocated to Venezuela. After 1976 the government again tightened its controls on immigration from other South American countries, instead favouring professionals from the United States, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Throughout that period of relative prosperity and economic expansion, the volume of illegal immigration (mainly unskilled workers and their families) matched that of legal entry. Most illegal immigrants came from Colombia, with smaller numbers arriving from Brazil and other neighbouring countries. Prior to the extended economic downturn of the 1980s, as many as 1.5 million undocumented Colombians resided in Venezuela, and more than a decade later hundreds of thousands remained. The influx of foreigners generated xenophobic sentiments in the late 1980s.

Ethnic groups are commonly identified with particular regions. Venezuelans of largely European and mestizo ancestry are concentrated in the major cities of the north. Peoples of African ancestry and mulatto-mestizo groups predominate along the Caribbean coast. Many mestizos from the highlands are physically distinct from those of the lowlands because of the different levels of intermarriage between Hispanic and Indian populations in the two regions. The Indian minorities survive mainly in the sparsely inhabited interior—three-fifths live in Zulia state (primarily in the forests near Lake Maracaibo), one-seventh inhabit Amazonas state in the far south, and smaller numbers live in such remote areas as the Guiana Highlands and the Orinoco delta region in the east. According to government estimates, there are some 38 distinct Indian peoples within Venezuelan territory. The Goajiro (Wayuu) are the largest indigenous group, followed by the Warao (Warrau).

 

Demographic trends
Venezuela’s 20th-century population growth was among the most rapid in Latin America, averaging nearly 3 percent annually during the period 1970–95. This increase was prompted by high birth rates, declines in mortality rates, and successive waves of immigration. The population growth rate has declined significantly, however, since the early 1990s. After World War II Venezuela’s mortality rate began to drop as advances in medicine and technology combated malaria, yellow fever, and other ailments; in addition, hygiene and diet were improved, and housing conditions were upgraded. While birth rates remained at high levels, mortality rates, which had been as high as 30 per thousand before 1920, dropped below 10 per thousand by the 1960s. Since that time the mortality rate has stabilized, and demographic changes have been mostly influenced by immigration rates and by reductions in fertility levels, which nevertheless have remained relatively high. Between one-half and three-fifths of the population is under 30 years of age. Life expectancy rates have also been rising, a trend contributing to rapid population growth.

 

Languages
The Indian groups speak more than 25 different languages, most of which belong to three linguistic families—Cariban, Arawak, and Chibcha. Spanish is the national language of the majority. Local idioms, colloquial phrases, and simplified verb usage distinguish Venezuelan Spanish from other Latin American and Iberian variants. In Caracas and other major commercial centres, English is often favoured in business communications, and private schools in Caracas encourage bilingualism. The presence of English-speaking professionals in the oil centres and in the major cities has made English the country’s most popular second language.

 

Religion
Freedom of religion in Venezuela is guaranteed by the constitution, although the vast majority of the people are at least nominally adherents of Roman Catholicism. Religious tolerance is generally observed. Various Protestant sects form the largest minority group, and there are small groups of Jews and Muslims. Some Indian peoples continue to practice their traditional religions, but many have converted to Catholicism, especially those in settlements clustered around riverside mission stations. The Roman Catholic church is officially apolitical, but many priests and bishops have become involved in political events, some by espousing liberation theology and agitating for socioeconomic reforms, and others by reacting against liberal or radical government policies.

Daily life
As Venezuelans moved from the countryside to the cities, they developed a modern urban lifestyle; large middle-class neighbourhoods developed alongside burgeoning poor ranchos. Many middle- and upper-class Venezuelans acquired wealth from oil in the 1950s–70s, which enabled them to travel easily, especially to the United States, and to own cars and houses. The economic downturn since the 1980s has interrupted that easy lifestyle, however, and poverty has grown.

In Venezuela the admixture of African, European, and Indian cultural traditions is often called criollo (Creole), although that term in most Latin American contexts denotes people of European ancestry. Venezuelans boast criollo foods, dances, and, especially, music. National foods include arepa (a cornmeal bread) and hallaca (sweet cornmeal dough cooked in banana leaves). Other typical foods include passion fruit and tamarinds, tequeños (cheese pastries), pabellón (a stew of beef, rice, and black beans served over fried plantains), and pulpo (octopus) cooked in citrus juice. During the pre-Lenten Carnival more elaborate dishes are served, such as paella and talcari de chivo (“kid stew”). Locally produced beer and rum are popular, as is coffee served in many different styles, each with its own name reflecting the amount of milk added to the coffee.

Although North American music is popular and widespread in Venezuela, the Caribbean salsa and merengue forms are also commonly heard. The national Venezuelan folk dance and musical style is the joropa, but each region of the country has its own distinctive musical expression. (See also Native American arts: Northern South America.)

 

The arts
Since the 1920s the government has promoted artistic expression as a way to maintain cultural autonomy in the face of foreign influences. As greater freedom for writing and publishing was granted, a flourishing national literature emerged. Rómulo Gallegos, who became Venezuela’s best-known writer, was part of this nationalistic wave, gaining international recognition for his novel Doña Bárbara (1929). Such painters as Armando Reverón and Manuel Cabré also expressed nationalistic fervour. The architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva won international acclaim for his design of the Central University in Caracas, which featured asymmetrically arranged buildings complemented by freestanding murals and sculpture.

The state-supported Venezuelan Symphony Orchestra is highly popular, and its repertoire also reflects a spirit of nationalism. Also of great pride is the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra in Caracas, which boasts some of the country’s best young musicians. Some of these musicians are recruited from a comprehensive orchestral training and music education program known in Venezuela as El Sistema (“The System”). The program, which was created in the 1970s, offers hundreds of thousands of children from underprivileged and at-risk communities the opportunity to play in youth orchestras throughout the country, and each state in Venezuela has at least one professional youth orchestra.

 

Cultural institutions
Most of Venezuela’s major cultural institutions are located in Caracas. The Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1938) houses a large collection of paintings and sculptures by both Venezuelan and foreign artists. Other museums include the Museum of Colonial Art, housed in an 18th-century mansion, and the Science Museum Foundation (founded in 1875 as the National Museum), which contains exhibits on archaeology, anthropology, and other disciplines. Among the noteworthy museums outside Caracas are a museum of pre-Columbian artifacts in Ciudad Bolívar and the Museum of Military History in Maracaibo. The most important book collections are at the National Library (1883) in Caracas, which holds more than two million volumes, including many rare books. The modern Teresa Carreño Theatre provides a forum for international and national music and dance performances.

The Armenians, an Indo-European people, first appear in history shortly after the end of the 7th century BCE. Driving some of the ancient population to the east of Mount Ararat, where they were known to the Greeks as Alarodioi (“Araratians”; i.e., Urartians), the invaders imposed their leadership over regions which, although suffering much from Scythian and Cimmerian depredations, must still have retained elements of a high degree of civilization (e.g., walled towns, irrigation works, and arable fields) upon which the less-advanced newcomers might build.

The Hayk, as the Armenians name themselves (the term Armenian is probably the result of an Iranian or Greek confusion of them with the Aramaeans), were not able to achieve the power and independence of their predecessors and were first rapidly incorporated by Cyaxares into the Median empire and then annexed with Media by Cyrus II (the Great) to form part of the Achaemenian Empire of Persia (c. 550 BCE). The country is mentioned as Armina and Armaniya in the Bīsitūn inscription of Darius I (the Great; ruled 522–486 BCE) and, according to the 5th-century Greek historian Herodotus, formed part of the 13th satrapy (province) of Persia, the Alarodioi forming part of the 18th. Xenophon’s Anabasis, recounting the adventures of Greek mercenaries in Persia, describes the local government about 400 BCE as being in the hands of village headmen, part of whose tribute to the Persian king consisted of horses. Armenia continued to be governed by Persian or native satraps until its absorption into the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great (331). After the empire was divided between Alexander’s generals, Armenian rulers paid tribute to the Seleucid kingdom (301), although in practice they wielded considerable autonomy.

The Artaxiads
After the defeat of the Seleucid king Antiochus III (the Great) by Rome at the Battle of Magnesia (winter 190–189 BCE), his two Armenian satraps, Artaxias (Artashes) and Zariadres (Zareh), established themselves, with Roman consent, as kings of Greater Armenia and Sophene, respectively, thus becoming the creators of an independent Armenia. Artaxias built his capital, Artashat (Artaxata), on the Aras River near modern Yerevan. The Greek geographer Strabo refers to the capital of Sophene as Carcathiocerta. An attempt to end the division of Armenia into an eastern and a western part was made about 165 BCE when the Artaxiad ruler sought to suppress his rival, but it was left to his descendant Tigranes II (the Great; 95–55 BCE) to establish, by his conquest of Sophene, a unity that was to last almost 500 years.

Under Tigranes, Armenia ascended to a pinnacle of power unique in its history and became, albeit briefly, the strongest state in the Roman east. Extensive territories were taken from the kingdom of Parthia in Iran, which was compelled to sign a treaty of alliance. Iberia (Georgia), Albania, and Atropatene had already accepted Tigranes’ suzerainty when the Syrians, tired of anarchy, offered him their crown (83 BCE). Tigranes penetrated as far south as Ptolemais (modern ʿAkko, Israel).

Although Armenian culture at the time of Tigranes was Iranian, as it had been and as it was fundamentally to remain for many centuries, Hellenic scholars and actors found a welcome at the Armenian court. The Armenian empire lasted until Tigranes became involved in the struggle between his father-in-law, Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus, and Rome. The Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus captured Tigranocerta, Tigranes’ new capital, in 69 BCE. He failed to reach Artashat, but in 66 BCE the legions of Pompey, aided by one of Tigranes’ sons, succeeded, compelling the king to renounce Syria and other conquests in the south and to become an ally of Rome. Armenia became a buffer state, and often a battlefield, between Rome and Parthia. Maneuvering between larger neighbours, the Armenians gained a reputation for deviousness; the Roman historian Tacitus called them an ambigua gens (“ambiguous people”).

The Arsacids
Both Rome and Parthia strove to establish their own candidates on the Armenian throne until a lasting measure of equilibrium was secured by the treaty of Rhandeia, concluded in 63 CE between the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo and Tiridates (Trdat), brother of the Parthian king Vologeses I. Under this treaty a son of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, the first being Tiridates, would occupy the throne of Armenia but as a Roman vassal. A dispute with Parthia led to Armenia’s annexation by the Roman emperor Trajan in 115 or 116, but his successor, Hadrian, withdrew the frontier of the Roman Empire to the Euphrates. After the Roman emperor Caracalla’s capture of King Vagharshak and his attempt to annex the country in 216, his successor, Macrinus, recognized Vagharshak’s son Tiridates II (Khosrow the Great in Armenian sources) as king of Armenia (217).

Tiridates II’s resistance to the Sāsānid dynasty after the fall of the Arsacid dynasty in Persia (224) ended in his assassination by their agent Anak the Parthian (c. 238) and in the conquest of Armenia by Shāpūr I, who placed his vassal Artavazd on the throne (252). Under Diocletian, the Persians were forced to relinquish Armenia, and Tiridates III, the son of Tiridates II, was restored to the throne under Roman protection (c. 287). His reign determined the course of much of Armenia’s subsequent history, and his conversion by St. Gregory the Illuminator and the adoption of Christianity as the state religion (c. 314) created a permanent gulf between Armenia and Persia. The Armenian patriarchate became one of the surest stays of the Arsacid monarchy and the guardian of national unity after its fall. The chiefs of Armenian clans, called nakharars, held great power in Armenia, limiting and threatening the influence of the king.

The dissatisfaction of the nakharars with Arshak II led to the division of Armenia into two sections, Byzantine Armenia and Persarmenia (c. 390). The former, comprising about one-fifth of Armenia, was rapidly absorbed into the Byzantine state, to which the Armenians came to contribute many emperors and generals. Persarmenia continued to be ruled by an Arsacid in Dvin, the capital after the reign of Khosrow II (330–339), until the deposition of Artashes IV and his replacement by a Persian marzpān (governor) at the request of the nakharars (428). Although the Armenian nobles had thus destroyed their country’s sovereignty, a sense of national unity was furthered by the development of an Armenian alphabet and a national Christian literature; culturally, if not politically, the 5th century was a golden age. (See Armenian literature.)

The marzpāns
The Persians were not as successful as the Byzantines in their efforts to assimilate the strongly individualistic Armenian people. The misguided attempt of the Persian Sāsānian king Yazdegerd II to impose the Zoroastrian religion upon his Armenian subjects led to war in 451. The Armenian commander St. Vardan Mamikonian and his companions were slain at the Battle of Avarayr (June 2?, 451), but the Persians renounced their plans to convert Armenia by force and deposed their marzpān Vasak of Siuniq, the archtraitor of Armenian tradition.

The revolt of 481–484, led by Vahan Mamikonian, Vardan’s nephew, secured religious and political freedom for Armenia in return for military aid to Persia, and with the appointment of Vahan as marzpān the Armenians were again largely the arbiters of their own affairs. Their independence was further asserted in 554, when the second Council of Dvin rejected the dyophysite formula of the Council of Chalcedon (451), a decisive step that cut them off from the West as surely as they were already ideologically severed from the East. (According to the dyophysite formula, Christ, the Son of God, consists of two natures, “without confusion, without change, without separation, without division.”)

In 536 the Byzantine emperor Justinian I reorganized Byzantine Armenia into four provinces, and, by suppressing the power of the Armenian nobles and by transferring population, he completed the work of Hellenizing the country. In 591 its territory was extended eastward by the emperor Maurice as the price of helping the Sāsānian king Khosrow II regain the Persian throne. After transporting many Armenians to Thrace, Maurice (according to the Armenian historian Sebeos) advised the Persian king to follow his example and to send “this perverse and unruly nation, which stirs up trouble between us,” to fight on his eastern front. During the war between the emperor Phocas and Khosrow, the Persians occupied Byzantine Armenia and appointed a series of marzpāns, only to be ousted by the emperor Heraclius in 623. In 628, after the fall of Khosrow, the Persians appointed an Armenian noble, Varaztirotz Bagratuni, as governor. He quickly brought Armenia under Byzantine rule but was exiled for plotting against Heraclius (635).

Armenians constitute nearly all of the country’s population; they speak Armenian, a distinct branch of the Indo-European language family. The remainder include Kurds, Russians, and small numbers of Ukrainians, Assyrians, and other groups. Most of Armenia’s Azerbaijani population fled or was expelled after the escalation of the conflict between the two countries. More than 3 million Armenians live abroad, including about 1.5 million in the states of the former Soviet Union and about 1 million in the United States.

The Armenians were converted to Christianity about 300 CE and have an ancient and rich liturgical and Christian literary tradition. Believing Armenians today belong mainly to the Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) Church or the Armenian Catholic Church, in communion with Rome.

The Russian campaigns against the Persians and the Turks in the 18th and 19th centuries resulted in large emigrations of Armenians under Muslim rule to the Transcaucasian provinces of the Russian Empire and to Russia itself. Armenians settled in Yerevan, Tʿbilisi, Karabakh, Shemakha (now Şamaxı), Astrakhan, and Bessarabia. At the time of the massacres in Turkish Armenia in 1915, some Armenians found asylum in Russia. A number settled in the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh within the neighbouring Muslim country of Azerbaijan. Armenians now constitute about three-fourths of the population of Nagorno-Karabakh; since 1988 there have been violent interethnic disputes and sporadic warfare between Armenians and Azerbaijanis in and around the enclave.

The economic crisis of the 1990s caused substantial numbers of Armenians to emigrate. By the mid-1990s an estimated 750,000 Armenians—about one-fifth of the population—had left the country.

At present, Armenia’s birth rate is below the world’s average, and its death rate is higher than average. About one-fifth of the population is under age 15, and more than two-fifths is under age 30. Life expectancy, averaging 75 years of age, is about the global mean.

Cultural Life
Armenian written literature began in the 5th century AD, and monasteries became the principal centres of intellectual life. The earliest works were historical, such as Moses of Khoren’s History of Armenia. The masterpiece of classical Armenian is Eznik Koghbatsi’s Eghts aghandots (Refutation of the Sects). The first great Armenian poet (10th century) was St. Gregory Narekatzi, renowned for his mystical poems and hymns. During the 16th to 18th century, popular bards, or troubadours, called ashugh, arose; outstanding among them were Nahapet Kuchak and, especially, Aruthin Sayadian, called Sayat-Nova (d. 1795), whose love songs are still popular. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Hakob Paronian and Ervand Otian were notable satirical novelists, and Grigor Zohrab wrote realist short stories. Paronian was also a comic playwright, whose plays still entertain Armenian audiences. The most celebrated novelist was Hakob Meliq-Hakobian, called Raffi, and perhaps the best dramatist of recent times was Gabriel Sundukian (d. 1912).

The country boasts a State Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet, several drama theatres, theatres for children, orchestras, a national dance company, and the Yerevan film studios, which produce feature, documentary, and science films. The traditional folk arts, especially singing, dancing, and artistic crafts, are popular. The 20th-century Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian achieved worldwide renown.

The public libraries include the A.F. Myasnikyan State Public Library and the Matenadaran archives in Yerevan, which contain 10,000 Armenian manuscripts, the largest collection in the world. There are also a number of museums, including the State Historical Museum of Armenia.

Armenian science, like its culture, has its roots in antiquity, but research institutions are a 20th-century development. The Armenian Academy of Sciences is composed of a number of institutes engaged in research problems in natural and social sciences.

The radio broadcasting system has been operating since 1926, and the Yerevan television centre since 1956. Broadcasts and telecasts are conducted in Armenian, Russian, Azerbaijani, and Kurdish. Many newspapers and periodicals are published in Armenia, most of them in the Armenian language.