Bahrain has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and several thousand burial mounds in the northern part of the main island probably date from the Sumerian period of the 3rd millennium BCE. It was the seat of ancient Dilmun (Telmun), a prosperous trading centre linking Sumer with the Indus valley about 2000 BCE. The archipelago was mentioned by Persian, Greek, and Roman geographers and historians. It has been Arab and Muslim since the Muslim conquest of the 7th century CE, though it was ruled by the Portuguese from 1521 to 1602 and by the Persians from 1602 to 1783. Since 1783 it has been ruled by sheikhs of the Khalīfah family (Āl Khalīfah), which originated in the Al-Ḥasā province of Arabia.

The British protectorate
Several times during the 19th century, the British intervened to suppress war and piracy and to prevent the establishment of Egyptian, Persian, German, or Russian spheres of influence. The first Bahraini-British treaty was signed in 1820, although the country’s British-protected status dates from 1861, with the completion of a treaty by which the sheikh agreed to refrain from “the prosecution of war, piracy, or slavery.” Thus, Britain assumed responsibility for the defense of Bahrain and for the conduct of its relations with other major powers. In 1947 this protection briefly became the responsibility of the government of British India, which had both commercial and strategic interests in the Persian Gulf, but it reverted to Britain following India’s independence. Until 1970 the government of Iran periodically advanced claims to sovereignty over Bahrain, but these were repudiated.

Britain’s decision to withdraw all of its forces from the gulf in 1968 led Sheikh ʿIsa ibn Salman Al Khalifah to proclaim Bahrain’s independence in August 1971. A treaty of friendship was signed with the United Kingdom, terminating Bahrain’s status as a British protectorate, and Sheikh ʿIsa was designated the emir. Bahrain then became a member of the United Nations and the Arab League.

Domestic and foreign relations since independence
After independence, tensions mounted between the predominantly Shiʿi population and Sunni leadership—especially following the 1979 revolution in Iran. The political unrest was fueled by economic and social grievances related to the fall in oil prices and production, cutbacks in public spending, and continued discrimination against the majority Shiʿi population.

In 1981 Bahrain joined with five other Arab gulf states in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which has led to freer trading and closer economic and defense ties. During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), Bahrain made its port and airfields available to the coalition forces that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. Although more moderate than Saudi Arabia, Bahrain has generally followed that country’s lead in most foreign policy decisions. The construction of the causeway linking Bahrain with Saudi Arabia has strengthened bilateral relations and regional defense and has helped both countries economically and politically.

Bahrain has maintained relatively good relations with the United States and has continued to house the U.S. Navy’s Fifth Fleet. Iran’s ties to the country’s Shiʿi community, its territorial claims to the island, and its displeasure with the American presence in Bahrain have helped to strain relations between it and Bahrain. Resolution in 2001 of the dispute between Bahrain and Qatar over the Ḥawār Islands improved their already warming relations.

Ethnic groups
Roughly half of the population is Arab, and most inhabitants are native-born Bahrainis, but some are Palestinians, Omanis, or Saudis. Foreign-born inhabitants, constituting about half of the population, are mostly from Iran, India, Pakistan, Britain, and the United States. About three-fifths of the labour force is foreign-born.

Languages
Arabic is the official language of Bahrain. English is widely used, however, and is a compulsory second language at all schools. Persian is also common, although it is spoken mostly in the home. A number of other languages are spoken among expatriates in Bahrain, including Urdu, Hindi, and Tagalog.

Religion of Bahrain
The population is predominately Muslim and includes both the Sunni and the Shiʿi sects, with the latter in the majority. The ruling family and many of the wealthier and more influential Bahrainis are Sunni, and this difference has been an underlying cause of political and social tension. Christians constitute about half of the remaining one-fifth of the population, with the rest consisting of Jews, Hindus, and Bahāʾīs.

Bahrain’s island location has made it unique among Persian Gulf states. With greater access to ocean travel and broader exposure to outside influences, Bahrain traditionally has been home to a more ethnically and religiously diverse and cosmopolitan population than have other, more insular gulf states. This openness is reflected in Bahrain’s social customs, which—although still conservative—are much more moderate and relaxed than those of its neighbours, particularly conservative Saudi Arabia. Thus, although Bahrain is still at heart an Arab-Islamic country, it has been more accepting of modernization and Westernization than many of its neighbours.

Daily life and social customs
The official holidays in Bahrain are generally the same as those observed in most Muslim countries. These include the two festivals, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, and, more recently, the celebration of ʿĀshūrā among the country’s Shiʿis.

Western-style clothing is common in Bahrain, though some men still wear the traditional thawb (full-length tunic) and the kaffiyeh (white head cloth), bound in place by a black, camel-hair cord known as an ʿiqāl—the latter often more ornate, particularly among the political elite. The dress rules for women are relaxed compared to the more conservative, regional standards, although women in rural areas, and those in conservative communities in cities, still wear the veil (ḥijāb) and a traditional long cloak known as an ʿabāyah.

Coffee is an important part of social life. Coffee shops are popular meeting places, and coffee is offered as a sign of hospitality. It is often flavoured with cardamom and saffron. Bahraini cuisine typically features fish, shrimp, meat, rice, and dates. Machbous is a popular traditional dish of fish or meat served with rice. Other typical food includes muḥammar, sweet brown rice with sugar or dates, and shāwarmah, spit-roasted lamb, beef, or chicken.

The arts
Traditional handicraft industries receive state and popular support, and most villages practice specialized traditions; ʿĀlī, for example, is well known for its ceramics, while artists in Karbābād weave baskets from date-palm leaves. Throughout the country artisans engage in gold working, tinsmithing, and textile making and sell their wares at small shops or the Souk al-Arabaʿāʾ (“Wednesday Market”) in Manama. Shipyards at Manama and Al-Muḥarraq are sites of dhow building, a highly respected art form. The museum in Manama contains local artifacts dating from antiquity, such as ivory figurines, pottery, copper articles, and gold rings, many of which reflect various cultural influences from outside Bahrain. There is also a small but flourishing avant-garde art community.

Music is an important part of Bahraini life. There is a rich folk music culture, and fidjeri, songs once sung by pearl divers, are still heard. Since 1991 the country has held an annual music festival. Although the country does not have a film industry, moviegoing is a popular activity, and some of Bahrain’s cinema theatres screen English-language films. In the early 21st century the government undertook a program to encourage the development of theatre.

According to early history, Brunei was discovered by a group of fourteen brothers travelling in search of a new place to live, which would be the beginnings of today’s Brunei.

Early History
When a group of brothers went on a journey for a new place to call home, they came across an area at the Brunei River and settled there because of the flanking hills, the water supply and the generous supply of fish, close to the country’s present capital. One of them was Awang Alak Betatar, who became the first Sultan of Brunei and took on the name Sultan Muhammad Shah when he embraced Islam.

Malay Islamic Monarchy
On January 1st, 1984, Brunei became a new nation, celebrating its independence and affirming its identity as a Malay and Islamic state governed by a monarchy. The philosophy of the Malay Islamic Monarchy, known as ‘Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB)’ in Malay, encapsulates Brunei’s culture and beliefs in a nutshell making it uniquely Bruneian.

Cultural Diversity
Brunei is predominantly made up of Malays (65.8%), with significant Chinese (10.2%), Indian and indigenous populations (23.9%). However, ask a Bruneian Malay what their ethnicity is, and you’ll most likely get either one of these seven answers: Melayu Brunei, Kedayan, Dusun, Tutong, Belait, Murut and Bisaya. (Note that two of them are actually named after two of Brunei’s districts, which gives you a hint as to where most of them live.) The Malay population is divided into these seven ethnic groups and are each characterised by distinct aspects of its culture and lifestyle with their own native language as well as customs and traditions.

Whether you’re thinking of taking a comfortable flight, spending some time on less-travelled roads, or fancy a quick boat ride, Brunei is easily reachable by air, land and sea.

BY AIR
The easiest way to reach Brunei would be through our flag carrier and national airline – Royal Brunei Airlines (RB) – which is serving 22 destinations across Asia, the Middle East, Europe and Australia since December 2018. New flights are being added to Haikou, Taipei, Changsha and Tokyo. RB uses B787 Dreamliner and Airbus A320neo aircraft for these services. Its hub, Brunei International Airport, is also only a 15-minute drive away from the nation’s capital. So don’t worry about those long drives to and from the airport. You’ll have plenty of time. A number of other airlines also fly through the international airport. AirAsia and Malaysia Airlines serves Brunei from Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), with Singapore Airlines from Singapore, Cebu Pacific from Manila (Philippines), and Lucky Air from Kunming (China).

BY LAND
Not from somewhere far, far away? Thinking of a road trip to Brunei? Well, you’re in luck. There are four ports of entry around Brunei that you can travel through by land. The first and most accessible one is located on the southwestern end of the country in Belait District. Known as Sungai Tujoh Control Post, it lies closest to the Sarawak city of Miri – one of our most visited neighbours. Another one is the Kuala Lurah Control Post, located in the Brunei-Muara District, less than an hour away from the border town of Limbang in northern Sarawak – another popular neighbouring destination. And if you’re coming from the east, travellers from the state of Sabah can also reach Brunei through the ports of entry in the Temburong District: the Labu and Ujong Jalan Control Posts.

BY SEA
Brunei also has a ferry terminal – the Serasa Passengers and Vehicle Ferry Terminal – which frequently sees visitors from Labuan, a federal territory of East Malaysia, located off the coast of Sabah.

The island of Borneo – known for its grand sunsets with mesmerizing colors in the sky blanketing landscapes and silhouettes that are sure to warm your heart. Brunei, located on the coastline of the island will definitely give you the ringside seat to watch the beautiful golden rays as it dips slowly into the horizon, leaving the vast skies a brilliant mix of colours from purple hues to red and pink.

Fortunate to have only one tropical season all year round, Bruneian sunsets generally start around 5:30pm every day. To help you in your sunset chase, here are five places to check out:

The Empire Brunei
Perfectly located on the shores of Jerudong Beach, take a walk to the sunset point overlooking the horizon where you can catch a glimpse of some of the most magical sunsets, or enjoy the beautiful view of the sunset over mocktails or coffee at their Pantai Restaurant.

Tanjong Batu Beach, Brunei/Muara District
A fairly new beach in Brunei, Tanjong Batu has one of the most mesmerizing views especially as the sun slowly disappears into the horizon. Located at the end of the Muara-Tutong Highway and down the road leading to Muara town, follow the signs to ‘Jalan Tanjong Batu’. This long man-made structure and seawall is a popular area for families, joggers and cyclists to relax and unwind. Coupled with gives the seaside a stunning and clear view of the sea, with its calming breeze and the sounds of crashing waves allowing visitors to immerse in tranquility.

Meragang Beach, Brunei/Muara District
This untouched sandy beach is an ideal spot for some quiet reflection and sunset watching. Within walking distance nearby is the Marine Biodiversity Centre where members of the public can visit and learn about the marine life and conservation efforts in Brunei.

Seri Kenangan Beach, Tutong District
Also known as Tutong Beach, Seri Kenangan Beach is located about 45 minutes away from Bandar Seri Begawan. It is generally quiet throughout the week but it can get quite crowded over the weekends as families and friends can be seen setting up barbecues and picnics at the huts dotted around the beach. So, head there early if you want to picnic under a hut and then stay on till the sun sets for a wonderful end to your day!

Belait Beach, Belait District
If you’re heading down to the Belait District, approximately 2 hours away from the capital, pay a visit to Belait Beach. With its long sandy coastline stretching out for miles as far as the eyes can see and the offshore oil platforms glistening in the distance, be prepared to get mesmerized by its beautiful skies as the sun slowly fades into the horizon leaving the skies with a beautiful and majestic array of colours. Belait Beach is known to have one of the most tranquil and mesmerizing sunsets in all of Brunei due to its location and is not to be missed, especially if you’re in the district near sunset hours!

Before you head to any of the beaches in Brunei..
Please make sure to use adequate sun block, bring a hat or a beach umbrella, and put on insect repellant to protect yourself and more importantly, please be mindful to keep our beaches clean and to dispose your rubbish responsibly at designated areas, if any, or bring it with you.

Safety
Good holiday, first and foremost, means a safe holiday. If you intend to travel to Georgia, relax about safety issues. According to Numbeo 2016 report, Georgia is the safest country in Europe and 6th in the world following South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan.

You will feel complete safety while traveling around the country. Here we say that the guest is the gift from God, so Georgians will do their best to treat you with great hospitality. Friendly Georgians are always willing to assist you. You won’t need to take extra care of your pocket and handbag. Relax, and enjoy your precious time in this beautiful country.

No one will disturb you here, though, just in case, Georgian policemen are at your service 24/7. According to the recent research, police is one of the most trusted institutions in the country and about 74% of the population trust it. Georgia is ahead of European countries by this indicator. So be calm, relax and enjoy all the best things that country has to offer. We are waiting for you!

Gastronomy
Nothing tells you more about the spirit and culture of a country than its cuisine. Georgian national dishes are amongst the best in the world for their diversity and taste. Each historical province of the country has its own distinct culinary tradition that was refining for centuries. Especially distinguished and unique are Imeretian, Megrelian and Kakhetian cuisines.

While meat plays an important part in Georgian cuisine, very close attention is also paid to the locally produced vegetables, fruit and greens. Traditional dishes made of their accurate combination first attract you, then astonish you and eventually it all ends with gastronomic shock.

The secret of this taste is Georgian soil: natural extension of a fertile, mineral-rich landscape fed by the pure waters of the Caucasus Mountains. It seems that the nature harmoniously lives in products, that are being used to create unique, delicious, and organic Georgian dishes.

Traditional Georgian feast is called “Supra”. The list of dishes that will charm you at the “Supra” is endless, yet some of them should be distingished:

Khachapuri – Georgian cheese bread, also known abroad as a Georgian pizza. You can try different sorts of khachapuri in various regions of Georgia to experience unique taste – it is just wow!

Pkhaleuli – vegetarian dishes from a variety of spiced plants and vegetables usually with a walnut paste base, similar to spinach, but each having a unique taste and seasoning.

Satsivi – chicken or turkey in a walnut sauce with garlic and spices. It is so much appetizing that no diet will resist!

Khinkali – Georgian national dish. Juicy meat dumplings are made to be eaten by hand using a special technique that can be learned only here. It is so delicious that you have to visit Georgia just to try khinkali!

Mtsvadi – Georgian barbeque, meat grilled to perfection over a grape vinewood fire with bay leaf and fresh pomegranate juice squeezed over it.

Churchkhela – walnuts on a thread repeatedly dipped into a hot grape mixture, then hung to dry and harden in natural conditions. Churchkhela is Georgian national dessert.

Wine
Hectares of vineyards, Rtveli (Georgian harvesting) accompanied with polyphonic singing and clay vessels (Kvevri) full of wine – this is Georgia. Wine is everything here – everyone loves it. Every family will treat you with their own wine with great pleasure and pride. Vineyard is a sacred place for Georgians and winemaking – our beloved tradition. Country with population around 3.5 million, yearly produces approximately 150 million liters of wine.

Georgia has 8000 years of unbroken tradition of winemaking, which is proved by multiple archeological excavations and historical facts. The modern world recognized Georgia as the homeland of wine. According to one version, English word – wine derived from Georgian “ghvino”.

It is worth mentioning that Qvevri wine making method was included in UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list in 2013. In Georgia, there are more than 500 different endemic species of grape, from which the best quality wine is made. Special and unique Georgian wines are: Saperavi, Rkatsiteli, Kindzmarauli, Tsitska-Tsolikauri, Khvanchkara, Tvishi, Usakhelauri, Ojaleshi, etc.

Religion
As one of the first countries in the world to convert to Christianity in just the 4th century AD today Georgia is distinguished for full religious freedom and tolerance. Here for centuries people of different faith and religion have coexisted peacefully.

Majority of the population is Christian orthodox. Georgia is one of the few countries where orthodox and catholic churches, synagogoues and mosques are built side by side.

In all regions of Georgia you will see ancient Christian churches stretched high in the sky that count thousands of years and some of that are in a list of UNESCO world heritage sites. Below are the most significant cultural monuments:

Svetitskhoveli Cathedral is Georgian architechtoral monument of XI century, located in 20 km from Tbilisi in a historical town Mtskheta. This place is especially mystical and holy, as according to the legend the Shroud of Christ is buried under the cathedral.

Jvari Monastery is both the church and the monastery of VI century that is situated on the East of Mtskheta. View of Mtkvari and Aragvi confluence stretched from here is one of the most beautiful and astonishing views in Georgia.

Bagrati Cathedral was built in XI century and resisted many invasions since then thanks to its special solid construction. Being located on the Ukimerioni Hill in Kutaisi Bagrati Cathedral is still proudly standing on the guard of the whole city.

Gelati monastery is the jewel of Georgian architecture, built near Kutaisi in XII century by the legendary King of Georgia – David the Builder. In Middle Ages Gelati monastery was the main center of religion and education.

History
History of Georgia is the history of struggling for freedom. Nearly all the largest empires in the world attempted to possess this land. But after all, we amazingly managed to survive and preserve our independence. There were times when several huge invaders at the same time struggled for having influence over Georgia. The reason of all these wars was strategic location of Georgia between Europe and Asia on the major trade artery – Silk Road.

Dmanisi Hominid
Dmanisi archaeological excavations prove the fact of ancient humans (hominids) living on the territory of Georgia. Human skull recently discovered here is 1.8 million years old and the most ancient on the territory of Europe. It means that Georgia is the homeland of the first European.

Greek era
The first signs of the state of Georgia emerged in II BC at the Black Sea coast. Wealthy Kingdom of Kolkheti ruled by legendary king Aieti was situated here. Heroes of the famous Greek myth “Argonauts” visited Georgia in this very period to grab the Golden Fleece. This story is connected to the method of gold mining in Georgia. In Mountain Rivers Georgians used sheep fleece to clean water from sludge and obtain gold.

The Romans
After the Romans pushed into Persia, they set their eyes on Georgia sending their famed general Pompey in 66 BC to conquer the country. Remains of the stone bridge built by Pompey still exist in Georgia. Soon all of Caucasia fell under Roman rule, but it did not last long, and by the I century BC Georgia was considered as an ally not a subject state.

The Adoption of Christianity
Georgia was the second country in the world to adopt Christianity as a state religion. Saint Nino of Cappadocia introduced Christianity to the Georgian people in 337 AD. Georgia’s early adoption of Christianity had huge implications on how the future would have developed for Georgians, as it permanently oriented the country to the West, to Rome, and later to Europe as a whole.

Arab Domination
In 645 Arab armies swept northwards through Iran and captured Tbilisi forcing country to pay tribute. By the X century Arab rule in Western Georgia had weakened and the Byzantine Empire was rapidly expanding. Byzantine Emperor Basil II was able to retake most of Georgia and unite east and west as one nation.

David the Builder
Despite its turbulent history Georgia managed to become the strong kingdom by the XII century. This period is linked to the name of David the Builder (1089-1125), legendary king who initiated the country’s Golden Age. After implementation of political, economic and educational reforms, in 1096 he was able to stop paying tribute to the Turks and defeated them completely in August 12, 1121 with the 50 000 army against 300 000. Human treatment of Muslims during this period set a standard for tolerance that was unique in those times and was a hallmark of his enlightened rule.

King Tamar
Georgia reached its zenith during the rule of Queen Tamar (she was referred as King because of her incredible power). She was the grand-daughter of David the Builder, and during her reign Georgians enjoyed a cultural renaissance, evidenced by building churches and monasteries as well as developing art of frescos and ornamental design. In this period also arose literary tradition. Genius Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli dedicated his epic poem “The Knight in the Panther Skin” to the Queen Tamar.

Mongols
Georgia was the first European country to be conquered by Mongols. Under the leadership of great warlord Tamerlane, Mongol army invaded Georgia eight times during 1386-1403 years. Mongol invasion seriously damaged the Georgian state and the further development of the nation.

Persian and Ottoman Invasions
In XVI century Georgia found itself trapped between two expanding empires, the Ottoman Turks from the West and the Persians from the East. Both of them struggled to invade Georgia. The fall of Constantinople and the corresponding change in trade routes greatly weakened Georgia and endangered its future. The Shah of Persia invaded Georgia four times, conquered Tbilisi and captured numerous people. Eventually the kingdom was divided into two spheres of influence of both empires.

The Russian Empire
It took Georgia a lot of time to recover and only in the XVIII century country was able to become independent again. Though shortly afterwards due to the new threat coming from Iran and Ottoman empires in 1783 Georgia had to sign a treaty with Russia making Georgia a protectorate of the Russian Empire.

Existence as a part of Russia ended up in a declaration of independency of Georgia in 1918. Georgia existed for 3 years as an independent state before in 1921 it was annexed by the Red Army of the Soviet Union. Despite numerous historical obstacles and wars, exhausted country managed to survive and in May 26th, 1991 eventually gained its independence. This day is the major national holiday of the country.

This small country managed to stand through all the difficulties that befell on it for thousands of years. Unanimity, faith and struggle brought results and today Georgia is an independent sovereign state. We are proud of our history, of every day, spent on this blessed land since we are one of the most ancient nations – the nation who loved, loves and will always love freedom!

Culture
You are about to discover a country of diverse culture, rich history and unique artifacts. Georgia is home to the first human outside of Africa who settled down here about 2 million years ago. Georgia is an ancient country at the crossroads of the Eastern and Western civilizations, where the European and Asian way of life and traditions merge for thousands of years. Indeed this country has a lot of amazing things to show you and tell you!

It is impossible to visit Georgia and not get charmed by its traditional architecture, that counts more than 1300 years. On the streets of the city, river canyons and mountain peaks you will see ancient unique domed temples painted with frescoes created based on Bible.

If you are looking for something very special and mystical, you should definitely visit the monastery complexes carved into the rocks:

Vardzia is a monastery complex built in the 12th century, which consists of churches carved into the rock, cells, secret tunnels and halls. This is one of the most eye-catching tourist attractions of the country.

Davit Gareja is a complex of monastery caves of the feudal era carved into the rock. Its walls are painted with ancient frescoes.

Uplistsikhe is a cave town. Yes, exactly the cave town and one of the most ancient settlements of the Caucasus. Caves, carved into a massive rock are firmly standing for thousands of years and even today keep their old appearance.

Georgian polyphonic music is globally prominent for its special harmonious sonority. Since 2001, Georgian polyphonic music is among UNESCO’s world intangible cultural heritage list. The polyphonic structure of this music has not changed over the centuries and still can be heard across the country – in the city and in rural areas, in the churches and monasteries and during various cultural events. Georgian traditional “Sufra” (table, feast) is unimaginable without this music. This sonority is the part of Georgians’ genetic code and most accurately expresses the character of this nation.

Rhythm, dynamics, geometric order, discipline, destructive energy, simultaneous teamwork and individualism – This is Georgian folk dance. Georgian dance embodies the history of Georgia – fighting, development, peace, love, amazing synthesis of feast and sadness. Fast and precise solo roles are shifted by calm, but dynamic group choreography, sword dance – by light and earnest women dance roles. For a foreign eye, Georgian dances remind action scenes from Hollywood, saturated by special effects. In reality, all this is incredibly realistic. Georgian folk dances are highly appreciated all around the world, therefore, Georgian ensembles with their show programs and concerts, visit numerous countries throughout the year.

Qvevri
There is a distinctive winemaking technology: grape juice together with the seeds and skin is buried under the ground in clay vessels called “Qvevri”

Unique Alphabet
Unique alphabet – one of 14 independent alphabets in the world.

The First Human Civilization
The first human civilization outside of Africa has been discovered in Georgia (the remains of that settlement are 1, 75 million years old)

Tusheti
When it comes to the height of its mountains and variety of available treks, Georgia’s High Caucasus offers a lot of options to the mountaineers.

The Highest Permanent Settlements In Europe
Tushetian village Bochorna and Svanetian commune Ushguli are Europe’s highest permanently inhabited settlements

Botanical Garden
It is one of the most ecologically diverse countries in the world, with climatic zones ranging from subtropical and high alpine to semi-desert.

Heritage Sights
Three cultural monuments which are included into UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

Ski Resorts
Georgia is a paradise for freeriders and heli-skiers

Cradle Of Wine
Winemaking has been practiced in Georgia for over 8,000 years.

Georgia becomes more and more popular among tourists not because you can try delicious food there or visit ancient sightseeing but also for numerous entertainment options which are available there, such as Iconic clubs, archetypal pubs and bars, traditional wine cellars, delicious restaurants, You can try your luck at casinos as well.

Electronic music became popular in Tbilisi decade ago and now the city is among world’s top destinations for clubbing. A new generation of Georgians successfully transformed old soviet buildings into the mind-blowing venues for partying. World media often compares Tbilisi to Berlin. Each weekend you will find top rated artists from mainly from Europe and also from other countries in local clubs. The most iconic clubs and venues for electronic music lovers of Tbilisi are Bassiani, Mtkvarze, Cafe Gallery, Khidi, Tivi, Elektrowerk and etc. Each of these places are unique with their individual spirit, own back-story and all of them are very impressive. You get the updates from them on their Facebook pages and you can easily buy tickets online.

Pop and rock music, karaoke and a lot of cover concerts are taking place in Shardeni and Perovskaya areas of Tbilisi. There are a lot of bars that tourists like to visit. The locals prefer to hang out in places like Fabrika.

Autumn and spring bring festive gastronomic experiences at New Wine Festival, Cheese Festival, Tbilisoba and many other events, where you can get closer to the culture and taste local cuisine. Visiting indoor water parks, playing board games or quests, going to cinema and doing shopping are good options for rainy days.

Theatre and movie festivals, as well as international Tbilisi Jazz Festival are traditionally held in November. Check out the website with tickets: tkt.ge, biletebi.ge, eventer.ge.

Winter in Georgia reduces the temperature, but not fun. You can visit local restaurants for authentic Georgian food that you will never forget. Bars and clubs of Tbilisi become crowded even more. Of course, after active nightlife you need to recover.

There are places where you get high class spa care based on natural Georgian wines and well known curative waters (spa resorts around Kvareli and Borjomi are famous for that). Beside this, you can try bathing in thermal water, balneotherapy, classic spa treatment, and last but not least don’t miss a chance to visit the famous sulfur baths of Tbilisi and balneologic center next to them.

 

Events & Festivals
Incentives to visit Georgia become more and more various and all of them are impressive. World rugby u20 championship has just been held in Tbilisi and Kutaisi. While, Georgia, which were selected by UEFA on 26 January 2015, will soon host the 2017 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. All European eyes on Tbilisi in November, cause its Eurovision Junior 2017 song contest here. Those who enjoy food, wine, folk dances and songs should consider coming to Art Gene in July, Cheese festival and “Tbilisoba” in October. New Wine festival should also be noted as one of the most attended event during the year.

Georgia has strengthened its position on the world map of entertainment. There’s always something cool happening here. Any weekend of the year you will definitely find some top international artists live on some stage of Tbilisi. People here hang out pretty well. Electronic music being super popular in Georgia has developed a festival culture, thus, within a short period of time, encouraged top-level music festivals such as: Gem fest in Anaklia, Sou festival in Tbilisi, 4GB festival in Tbilisi, Black Sea Jazz festival in Batumi, Tbilisi Open Air and etc. This year, Georgia will be hosting: Jamiroquai, Paul Kalkbrenner, Elton John, Martin Garrix, Steve Aoki, Boris Brejcha, Solomun, and Worakls along with other 500 popular artists from around the globe.

Looking for something special? Not a problem – enjoy different cultural events like: Theatre festival, Tbilisi international film festival, Color Fest, Photo festival “Kolga” , Ice cream festival, Street food festival, Tbilisi Fashion Week, Mercedes-Benz Fashion week and etc.

Ancient History
Millions of years ago people began to develop fertile land rich in wild animals in the territory of the modern Kazakhstan. First ancestors of Homo sapiens – Pithecanthropus and Neanderthal are known to have settled in the mountains of Karatau (Zhambyl region) and Mangystau and northern Balkhash. Moreover, it is confirmed by archeologists that tribes in northwest Kazakhstan domesticated camel, wild shepherd dog, mountain sheep, mastered the horse breeding, learned to make various items from copper, stone, bone and clay as early as in IV-III millennium BC.

In the Bronze Age (XVII -VIII century BC) tribes living on the territory of Kazakhstan practiced cattle breeding, agriculture and metallurgy, lived in large villages, surrounded by walls and moats (the prototype of the cities), and were famous for their brave warriors.

Later, the territory was settled by Sakas (Scythians). These tribes were nomadic and semi-nomadic, some of them practiced agriculture (in the valleys of the rivers Syrdarya, Shu and Talas). Sakas were famous for being excellent horsemen. They are among the first to have mastered the technique of shooting a bow at full gallop. In addition, Sakas had their own written language, mythology and engaged art. The style in which Saka painters and jewelers created their works, subsequently were named “animal style” by historians.

Empress Tomyris is one of the most famous Saka rulers, who fought against Persian invaders, namely Cyrus the Great, subsequently winning his army and executing him.

A Saka warrior, clothes of which were covered with golden sheets, was first found in Esik mound by archeologists along with 4000 golden ornaments and was called Altyn Adam or the Golden Man. Later, three more of similar burials were discovered.
In the II century BC, the Xiongnu Empire, the lands of which stretched from Manchuria in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west started to split and one of its parts moved to the Kazakhstan territory, thus influencing the population, lifestyle, etc.

History of the I millennium
In the middle of the I-st millennium the ancient Turkic tribal union started to be formed on the expanse of the Mongolian mountains to the Caspian Sea, which ultimately lead to the emergence of statehood.

In 551, the first turkic state formed in this region, known as Turkic Khanate. This fact contributed to the development of crafts and trade. Formation of the Turkic khanate had a positive impact on the functioning of the Asia-Europe trade route, historians now refer to as the Great Silk Road, as well as the construction of the first cities in the steppes, such as Chirik-Rabat, Otrar, Syganak, Ispijab, Taraz and Balasagun. The cities were located along the flow of the rivers and were important locations of the Silk Road.

During this period many turkic states were replacing each other one after another: Turgesh, Karluk, Karakhanid, Kipshak, Oguz, etc. Also, Arabs introduced the Islamic religion to the turkic tribes, as well as the inherent model of writing. Over time, the Arabic script is almost completely replaced the traditional ancient Turkic runic script.

Golden Horde
In 1218 Genghis Khan’s troops invaded the territory of Kazakhstan and destroyed the cities like Otrar, Syganak, Ashnas, etc. At first nomads provided fierce resistance, but then many nations lay down their arms voluntarily or forcibly and joined the Genghis Khan army.

After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire was divided into several independent states.
Eastern Dasht-i-Kipchak (the territyro of Kazakhstan), part of the territory of Khorezm and Western Siberia became part of the Golden Horde – the state created by Batu (grandson of Genghis Khan). The vast majority of the Horde was representatives of the Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchak, Kangly, Naiman, and Kerayit Konyrat.

Fateful year for the rulers of the Golden Horde was in 1391. This year, Tamerlane, also known as “iron Timur”, defeated the army of the Horde, and the once mighty state split into two parts: the western – the Ak-Orda and eastern – Kok-Orda. The latter, in turn, was divided into two wings: Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate.

Kazakh Khanate
Tired from the tough policy of the Uzbek Khanate, Janibek and Kerey sultans left Syrdarya steppes with their auls in 1460. They moved to Zhetisu (Almaty region) where in 1465 created Kazakh Khanate and started to expand their boundaries after the death of Uzbek Khanate’s khan, which over time reached the territory from Irtysh to Zhaik rivers.

During the reign of Tauke Khan, Zhety Zhargy the code of laws of the Kazakh Khanate was adopted. Prominent public figures, scientists and thinkers – Tole bi, bi and Kazybek Aiteke bi participated in its preparation.

In the XVIII century, Kazakh Khanate was weakened under the onslaught of Jungars, but retained its territorial division into three Juz – Senior, Middle and Younger. Despite the military power of the enemy, in separate battles Kazakh soldiers were able to inflict considerable damage to Junggar army. However, understanding that without support from the outside, fighting the invaders was more and more difficult every year, Khan Abulhair of the Younger Juz in 1730 addressed the Russian Empress Anna Ivanovna with a proposal to establish a military alliance against Jungars. But the Empress did not support this initiative, offering to answer protectorate from Russia. Unlike the Younger Juz, the process of joining the Senior and Middle Juzes to Russian Empire, stretched for many years.

Along with the positive moments, resulting from joing Russian Empire, e.g. solving security issues, and receiving investments for constructing roads and factories, there also were negative consequences, such as changing the life of Kazakh nomadic tribes, losing much of their best pastures and elimination of Khan ruling. These and other negative changes caused discontent in the Kazakh society, which subsequently resulted in the people’s liberation uprising. The most famous of them were the Peasant’s War, or Pugachev rebellion (1773 -1775), the anti-feudal and anti-colonial movement of the Kazakhs Younger Juz under the leadership of Syrym Datuly (1783 – 1797), the uprising of the poor in Western Kazakhstan lead by Isatai Taimanuly and Makhambet Utemisuly (1836 – 1838), etc.

Kazakhstan during Soviet Period
After the October Revolution, setting up of the Soviet authority in Kazakhstan completed in March 1918. The capital of Kazakh Autonomous Social Soviet Republic was Kyzylorda, and later was moved to Almaty.

In the late 30s the process of industrialization began in the country, which allowed Kazakhstan to become one of the largest industrial regions of the USSR. Over time, Kazakhstan has become a major supplier of zinc, titanium, magnesium, tin, phosphorus, chromium, silver and molybdenum for the needs of the defense industry and technical SSSR. However, harsh policy of the Soviet rulers has led to the reduction of population due to famine in 1930s, mass repression, etc.

With the beginning of Nazi aggression, over 400 factories from the European part of the country were evacuated into Kazakhstan. There were built new cities and workers’ settlements, factories and mines. During the WWII 500 Kazakhs became Heroes of the Soviet Union and four of them (Talgat Begeldinov, Leonid Beda, Ivan Pavlov and Sergey Lugansky) were twice awarded Hero of the Soviet Union.

In 1955 the construction of the military polygon of Baikonur for ballistic missile tests began in Kazakhstan. Subsequently, it has become the main spaceport of the planet. After more than half a century, Baikonur remains one of the leading space centers, annually carrying out dozens of manned rocket launches.

In addition, in the post-war years in Kazakhstan the largest polygon in the world was built near the town of Semipalatinsk (Semey), designed to test the latest models of nuclear and atomic weapons. The experiments have caused significant harm to the ecosystem of the Semipalatinsk region. Therefore, in 1989, activists of the anti-nuclear movement “Nevada – Semipalatinsk demanded the elimination of the polygon and succeeded.

One more important event in the modern history of Kazakhstan, is a large-scale agricultural campaign designed at developing of virgin and fallow lands. During the virgin lands development years, tons of grain was produced in Kazakhstan. As a result of the republic became one of the largest grain producers in the world.

Independent Kazakhstan
After the collapse of the USSR, Kazakhstan declared its independence. This historical event took place on December 16, 1991, the first countries to recognize the independence of the newly proclaimed republic, were Turkey, the United States and China.
2 January 1992 Kazakhstan became a member of the OSCE. In the same year the republic was adopted in the United Nations.
15 November 1993 Kazakhstan introduced its national currency – tenge.
20 October 1997 – the capital of Kazakhstan was moved from Almaty to Astana (then called Akmola).

Kazakhs have always revered and highly valued their national customs and traditions. It is almost impossible to describe all the traditions followed by Kazakh people in one article, thus a brief introduction to Kazakh beliefs and customs is given below.

The main tradition of Kazakhs, which eventually transformed into a feature of national character, is hospitality. In the Kazakh society, there is an unofficial law voiced in ancient times, which says “Meet a guest as the God’s messenger”.

Hospitality is considered a sacred duty in the Kazakh society. At all times, the steppe inhabitants did their best to please their guest. Therefore, each traveller knew that he or she would be welcomed anywhere in the Kazakh land.

Respect for the elderly is another positive feature of Kazakhs. Traditionally, a child from early childhood is taught to be moderate and honest when dealing with older, wiser and life experienced people.

However, the above mentioned national identities that served as a basis for the occurrence of generalized rules and principles of public relations (tradition), fortunately, are confined not only to representatives of the Kazakh people. Therefore, we offer to your attention a list of basic and authentic customs, which are widespread in the Kazakh society.

1. Traditions and customs associated with the guest reception
Travellers in Kazakhstan are most likely to be encountered with the traditions, associated with guest reception. Here are some examples of them:
Konakasy – a custom associated with treating of a guest. As mentioned above, Kazakh people since ancient times have been famous for their hospitality. Kazakhs always reserve the tastiest food for guests. Guests are divided into three types: “arnayy konak” is a specially invited guest, “kudayy konak” – a random stranger (uninvited), “kydyrma konak” – an unexpected guest. All these guests, despite of their type are offered a rich table – Konakasy.

Konakkade – a tradition under which a host has a right to ask a guest to sing a song or play a musical instrument (of course, as long as a guest is known for his or her talent), thus ensuring some fun and joy during the feast.

Erulik – if new settlers came to a village erulik was arranged in their honour, i.e. a small celebration that allowed newcomers to quickly adapt to the new location. Also, the custom erulik includes assistance in settling of the newcomers, when neighbours provide them with firewood, drinking water, etc. for the time being.

Toy dastarkhan – a special form of celebration, organized for holiday or during it. Sports competitions, music, singing competitions (aitys) and horse riding competitions are organised in addition to the gatherings during Toy dastarkhan. Very often, dishes of Kazakh national cuisine are served during such occasions.

2. Traditions and customs associated with gift giving
Guests are very often have to receive or give presents; in addition, there are often times, when gifts should be given in some special occasions according to the traditions. Some examples are given below:
Suyіnshі – a custom according to which a traveller or any other person who brought home a good message (news) receives a valuable gift from the owners in gratitude. Sometimes before telling good news a person says ‘Suyunshi’ or ‘what would you give me for a Suyinshi?’, thus implying that he or she has something great to tell.

“At mingizip shapan zhabu” is a high honour. According to the tradition, a respected visitor, who may be a poet (akin), a hero, warrior (batir) or other very respected man receives a gift from local residents: a horse and a splendid shapan (robe of camel’s hair with a cotton lining) in recognition of their merit.
Baygazy – a tradition of giving a gift to a person, who acquired a new valuable thing.

3. Traditions and customs associated with mutual aid
Helping each other has always been highly valued by Kazakhs and is very important in a Kazakh community. Therefore, there are a number of traditions, which are associated with mutual aid. Some of them are listed below:

Asar – a family, which has to perform an urgent and sometimes a hard work, has a right to ask relatives, friends and neighbours for assistance. At the end of the work, a rich table is laid as a gratitude for those, who helped.

Zhylu – a tradition associated with the provision of material, moral and financial assistance to people affected by natural disasters (fire, flood, etc.). All supporters, not only relatives are entitled to help the victims. Many things can be given as donations – livestock, building materials, clothing, money, etc.

Belkoterer – a tradition to treat the elderly. Delicious and most importantly – soft foods such as kazy, zhent, cottage cheese are cooked for the elderly. Typically, this responsibility rests on children or close relatives, the less likely neighbours. Belkoterer tradition is an example of caring for the elderly.

4. Traditions and customs associated with birth and upbringing of the child
Traditions, connected with the birth of children and their upbringing, apparently play a very important role in many cultures. Just a brief description of such rituals and traditions followed by Kazakh families, is given below. All of these rituals are usually followed by celebrations.
Shіldehana – a celebration that is associated with childbirth.

Besіkke salu, besik toy – a holiday, hosted when the newborn is put to a cradle – besik. As a rule, it is organized on the 3rd-5th day after dropout of umbilical cord of the kid.

Kyrkynan shygaru – a ritual performed on the fortieth day after birth that includes bathing baby in 40 tablespoons of water, and the first haircut and nail cut and other rituals.

Tusau kesu – a day when the baby took his first steps the oldest and most respected people is invited to perform a ceremony of Tusau keser. Then he or she should cut the special ropes, beset baby’s legs, in order to ensure that in future the kid could walk nicely and run fast.

Sundetke otyrgyzu is a rite of circumcision. The ceremony is held when a boy is 5-7 years old. A big festival to which all the relatives and friends are invited is organized after this. On the occasion of Sundetke otyrgyzu guests usually make generous gifts to the hero of the occasion and his parents.

5. Traditions and customs related to marriage
One of unique Kazakh traditions related to marriages is that the marriage between relatives up to the seventh generation is prohibited. Such taboo helps to prevent blood mixing and, consequently, benefit to the health of future offspring.
Traditionally, sequence of the ceremonies and rituals related to a marriage is the following.

Any wedding ceremony in the Kazakh society is anticipated by kudalyk (matchmaking). Before the wedding, matchmakers come to bride’s house. Their task is to agree with the closest relatives of a girl on her marriage. During courtship, father of the bride receives gifts from the guests that serve as a deposit.

If negotiations are successful, the father, in turn, presents a coat to the main matchmaker. This custom is called “Shege Sapa”. Preparation of “kuyruk bauyr” – a delicious dish from the liver and broad tail fat also testifies to the successful completion of courtship.

The next stage of the ceremony is sendoff of the bride Kyz uzatu. In the evening before the Kyz uzatu matchmakers come to the bride’s house again. Number of visitors should not be even (5-7). Early in the morning, the bride with matchmakers is sent to the groom’s house.

Solemn ceremony of meeting the bride in the groom’s house is called kelіn tusіru. The main element of kelіn tүsіru is a traditional performance of a song of instructions and wishes – Betashar.

In ancient times when the Kazakhs practiced a nomadic lifestyle, dwelling (yurt) of newlyweds was located behind the house of groom’s parents. According to the tradition, the first threshold of the yurt was to be crossed by the bride, and be sure to do it with the right foot. Also during the wedding ceremony, the couple must drink together a bowl of water with dissolved sugar and salt. This ritual is considered as a guarantor of a happy family life.

6. The most ancient traditions of Kazakh people
Ashamayga mingizu is a ritual whereby a 6-7-years-old boy was supposed to be given a horse and whip. Such a ritual is a kind of “initiation”, having proclaimed that the child is a jigit. On this day, elders blessed the young rider and parents organized a small celebration in honour of their son.

Bastangy is an ancient analog of contemporary youth parties. Traditionally, these celebrations are conducted immediately after departure of adults. During Bastangy, guests express only one wish that the travel of the adults would be accompanied by luck.

Kazakh language
Kazakh culture is also represented in Kazakh language and literature.
Kazakh is a Turkic language and is similar to other Turkic languages, such as Ozbek, Kyrgyz, Turkish, etc. It is agglutinative language with a vowel harmony, like other Turkic languages.

Kazakh is written using Cyrillic alphabet, though Kazakhs, living in China still use Arabic-derived alphabet as 100 years ago. Kazakh was also written in Latin alphabet in 1920s, thus being changed several times in XX century. Nowadays a switch to Latin alphabet is being discussed.
Russian is also widely used in Kazakhstan and is spoken almost everywhere.

Kazakh literature
Kazakh language is very poetic and rich in metaphors, which are used not only in poems and novels, but also in everyday language of people.

Highly poetic nature of Kazakh language has been perfect for the development of Kazakh poetry from ancient times.
Easy to remember Kazakh poetry was delivered from ‘father to son’ from centuries to centuries, sometimes slightly modified, sometimes with creation of completely different variants, with happier ending than in the original, etc…

One of the examples of such folklore are epic poems and love poems. These are true stories of love and braveness of heroes, in the form of long poems, which generally reflect history of Kazakh people. Many of them are based on true stories: e.g. a mausoleum of Kozy Korpesh and Bayan Sulu (Kazakh Romeo and Juliette) in East Kazakhstan is a monument to their eternal love and a proof of their beautiful love story.

XIX-XX centuries were probably the period, when the most beautiful poems and novels were created by Abay Kunanbayuly, Magzhan Zhumabayuly, Zhusipbek Aymautuly, Shakerim Kudayberdiuly, and many others.

Abay Kunanbayuly (1845-1904) is a Kazakh poet, writer, composer, philosopher and translator. Abay’s creations open a new stage of Kazakh realistic literature. Main topics of his works are the call to goodness, knowledge, culture, honest labour, justice, love for people and native land. The winter residence of Abay in East Kazakhstan region is now a museum and is visited by many tourists every year.

Prose, or novels emerged as a new kind of word art in the beginning of XX century, with the emergence of written literature. The first novel in Kazakh is considered Unhappy Zhamal by Mirzhakyp Dulatuly.

Political situation of the period, culture, way of life, people’s beliefs were reflected in the novels, written in this period and many of them were forbidden during by the Soviet regime.

One of the writers of this period was Saken Seifullin. Saken Seifulin Museum in the old centre of Astana displays the history of his life and those who lived during the difficult years in the beginning of XX century.

South Korea to 1961
The First Republic
The First Republic, established in August 1948, adopted a presidential system, and Syngman Rhee was subsequently elected its first president. South Korea also adopted a National Security Law, which effectively prohibited groups that opposed the state or expressions of support for North Korea. Rhee was reelected in August 1952 while the country was at war. Even before the outbreak of the Korean War (1950–53), there had been a serious conflict between Rhee and the opposition-dominated National Assembly that had elected him in 1948. The dispute involved a constitutional amendment bill that the opposition introduced in an attempt to oust Rhee by replacing the presidential system with a parliamentary cabinet system. The bill was defeated, but the dispute continued at Pusan, the wartime provisional capital, where the National Assembly was reconvened.

When the opposition introduced another amendment bill in favour of a parliamentary cabinet system, Rhee in 1952 countered by pushing through a bill that provided for the popular election of the president. Later, in 1954, Rhee succeeded in forcing the National Assembly, then dominated by the ruling party, to pass an amendment that exempted him from what was then a two-term limit on the presidency. Under the revised constitution, Rhee ran successfully for his third term of office in May 1956. His election for the fourth time, in March 1960, was preceded by a period of tension and violence and was followed by accusations that the election had been fraudulent. Massive student demonstrations took place that culminated in a major event on April 19 in which many demonstrators died. Rhee resigned under pressure six days later and fled to exile in Hawaii, where he died in 1965 at age 90.

The Second Republic
The Second Republic, which adopted a parliamentary cabinet system, lasted only nine months. A figurehead president was elected by both houses of the legislature, and power was shifted to the office of Prime Minister Chang Myŏn, who was elected by the lower house by a narrow margin of 10 votes.

The Chang government made some strenuous efforts to initiate reforms. In a society laden with social and economic ills accumulated over a long period of time, however, it failed to cope with the unstable situation created by a violent political change. Rampant political factionalism only made the situation worse. With the ultimate source of authority now vested in the office of the prime minister, all factions, conservative and moderate, engaged in constant maneuvering to win over a group of independents in order to form a majority in the legislature. Before Chang had time to launch a full program of economic reform, the leadership of the ruling Democratic Party was crippled by factional strife within its ranks.

Military rule
The 1961 coup
On May 16, 1961, the military seized power through a carefully engineered coup d’état, ushering in a new phase of postliberation Korean politics. The military junta, led by General Park Chung-Hee, took over the government machinery, dissolved the National Assembly, and imposed a strict ban on political activity. The country was placed under martial law, and the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (SCNR), headed by Park, took the reins of government and began instituting a series of reforms.

In November 1962 the SCNR made public a constitutional amendment bill that provided for a strong president and a weak, single-chamber National Assembly. The bill was approved by a national referendum one month later. A series of events unfolded in the first half of 1963. In February Park announced that he would not take part in the civilian government to be formed later in the year if civilian political leaders chose to uphold a nine-point “political stabilization proposal.” However, as a result of bitter turbulence within the ruling junta and a chaotic situation created by the proliferation of minor political parties, Park soon changed his mind and proposed that military rule be extended for four years. The proposal met vigorous opposition from civilian political leaders, but some 160 military commanders, most of them generals, supported the extension. In April, Park, under considerable domestic and international pressure (particularly from the United States), announced a plan for holding elections toward the end of the year. Park was named presidential candidate of the newly formed Democratic Republican Party (DRP) in late May.

The Third Republic
The election for president of the Third Republic took place on October 15, 1963. Park narrowly defeated the opposition candidate, Yun Po-Sŏn, former president (1960–62) of the Second Republic, who had remained in office as a figurehead at the request of the junta to provide constitutional continuity for the military government. When political activity was permitted to resume, Yun led the mustering opposition groups and became the presidential candidate of the Civil Rule Party. In May 1967 Park was elected to his second term of office, and the DRP won a large majority in the National Assembly. Members of the opposition New Democratic Party (NDP), whose head was the twice-defeated Yun, claimed fraud and refused for some time to take their seats in the National Assembly.

During his second term, President Park faced the constitutional provision that limited the president to two consecutive four-year terms. Amid extensive political turmoil created by the demonstrations of opposition politicians and students, the DRP members of the legislature passed a constitutional amendment that would make a president eligible for three consecutive four-year terms. The amendment was approved by a national referendum in October 1969. In the presidential elections held in April 1971, Park defeated Kim Dae-Jung of the NDP; however, the NDP made substantial gains, especially in major urban areas, securing 89 seats in the National Assembly election as against 113 seats won by the ruling DRP.

The Yushin order (Fourth Republic)
In December 1971, shortly after his inauguration to a third presidential term, Park declared a state of national emergency, and 10 months later (October 1972) he suspended the constitution and dissolved the legislature. A new constitution, which would permit the reelection of the president for an unlimited number of six-year terms, was promulgated in December, launching the Fourth Republic.

The institutional framework of the Yushin (“Revitalization Reform”) order departed radically from the Third Republic. The National Conference for Unification (NCU) was created “to pursue peaceful unification of the fatherland.” The conference was to be a body of between 2,000 and 5,000 members who were directly elected by the voters for a six-year term. The president was the chairman of the conference. Until 1987 the NCU was charged with the power to elect the president, and under this arrangement, Park was elected without opposition in 1972 and was reelected in 1978.

Political unrest increased following the August 1973 kidnapping from Tokyo to Seoul of Kim Dae-Jung—who had been conducting an antigovernment campaign in the United States and Japan—by agents of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA; now the National Intelligence Service). From August 1978 the opposition movement became stronger. The expulsion from the National Assembly of the new NDP leader Kim Young-Sam in early October 1979 escalated what had already been growing political tensions between the government and opposition leaders during the year into a major national crisis. Antigovernment riots broke out in Pusan and Masan and were suppressed by government troops. The crisis culminated on October 26, when President Park was assassinated by Kim Jae-Kyu, his longtime friend and director of the KCIA. Prime Minister Choi Kyu-Hah became acting president under the Yushin constitution and was formally elected president in December by the NCU.

In the meantime, the country was placed under strict military rule by Gen. Chun Doo-Hwan. An armed uprising of students and other citizens in Kwangju in May 1980, calling for the full restoration of democracy, was ruthlessly suppressed by the military junta, with hundreds of civilian deaths. That month the military did away with all trappings of civilian government, extended martial law, again banned all political activity, and closed universities and colleges.

Restoration of civilian government
The Fifth Republic
In August 1980 Chun Doo-Hwan was elected president by the NCU. A new constitution, under which the president was limited to one seven-year term, was approved in October, ushering in the Fifth Republic. Martial law was lifted in January 1981, and in February Chun was elected president under the new constitution. As parties were again allowed to operate, a new ruling party, the Democratic Justice Party (DJP), was formed by former members of the DRP and NDP. Chun’s administration, however, had to endure a series of scandals and incidents—most notably the bombing by North Koreans in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), in October 1983 that killed several members of the South Korean government. Meanwhile, in 1980 the strongly anticommunist Ronald Reagan was elected president in the United States, ushering in closer U.S.–South Korean ties and cooler U.S.–North Korean relations.

By 1987 popular dissatisfaction with the government had become widespread. To address this crisis, Roh Tae-Woo (from 1985 the chairman of the DJP) announced a program of constitutional reforms that would restore the democratic institutions and basic civil rights that had been usurped under military rule. Chun, compelled to accept this program, oversaw the drafting of a revised constitution, which was approved by a national referendum in October. Among its principal provisions were a reduction in the presidential term from seven to five years and the direct popular election of the president. Roh, a former army general, was elected president in December and took office in February 1988. With his inauguration, a peaceful transfer of power was effected for the first time in South Korean history, and the tortuous history of the Fifth Republic came to an end.

Ethnic groups
It was long believed that the Korean people originally may have had links with the people of Central Asia, the Lake Baikal region of Siberia, Mongolia, and the coastal areas of the Yellow Sea. Tools of Paleolithic type and other artifacts found in Sokch’ang, near Kongju, are quite similar to those of the Lake Baikal and Mongolian areas. In 2017, genetic analysis of bones found in Primorye kray in Far Eastern Russia suggested that Koreans were related to a population that had inhabited that area for at least 7,700 years. The genes of these Neolithic humans were expressed alongside those of indigenous agriculturalists from Southeast Asia to produce the genetic structure of modern Koreans.

The population of South Korea is highly homogeneous; almost the entire population is ethnically Korean, and there is a small minority of ethnic Chinese permanent residents. The number of foreigners is growing, especially in the major urban areas; people from Japan, the United States (including members of the military), and China make up the largest foreign populations, although they still constitute only small fractions. Many foreign nationals are employed in business or the diplomatic corps, and tens of thousands of workers come from China and Southeast Asia.

Languages
All Koreans speak the Korean language, which is often classified as one of the Altaic languages, has affinities to Japanese, and contains many Chinese loanwords. The Korean script, known in South Korea as Hangul (Han’gŭl) and in North Korea as Chosŏn muntcha, is composed of phonetic symbols for the 10 vowels and 14 consonants. Korean often is written as a combination of Chinese ideograms and Hangul in South Korea, although the trend is toward using less Chinese. A large number of English words and phrases have crept into the language—either intact or modified by local usage—as a result of the American presence in the country since 1950.

Religion
Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed in South Korea, and there is no national religion. There also is little uniformity of religious belief, a situation that often is confusing to outside observers. Historically, several religions prevailed successively: shamanism (the religious belief in gods, demons, and ancestral spirits responsive to a priest, or shaman), Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. None of these religions was abandoned, however, when one supplanted another in dominance, and all have had a role in the country’s sociocultural development. Thus, the rites of shamanism (which has existed in Korea since ancient times) are still practiced by many. The principles and social outlook of Confucianism are still much in evidence in Korean daily life and family relationships, and Buddhism remains influential—even among people who may be nominally Christian, for example. Approximately one-fourth of the population professes Christianity, with Protestants (particularly Presbyterians and Methodists), independent Christians, and Roman Catholics the largest groups. Less than one-sixth of the population is Buddhist.

Christianity is relatively new in Korea, Roman Catholic missionaries having reached the peninsula only in the late 18th century, and their Protestant counterparts a century later. Christianity has had a profound effect on the modernization of Korean society. Buddhism was first introduced in the 4th century CE and was the official religion of the Koryŏ dynasty, which began in 918. About one-sixth of the population adheres to so-called new religions. These include Wŏnbulgyo (Wŏn Buddhism), Taejonggyo (“Great Ancestral Religion”), and Ch’ŏndogyo. Ch’ŏndogyo (“Teaching of the Heavenly Way”), originally known as Tonghak (“Eastern Learning”), is a blend of Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, and even Daoism; it spread widely in the latter part of the 19th century. Shamanism and traditional geomancy (p’ungsu) persist, though their practices usually are limited to certain occasions, such as funerals. Confucianism was the basis of national ethics during the Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910); though the number of its official adherents is now small, most Korean families still follow its principles, including ancestor worship.

Cultural milieu
Shamanism, Buddhism, and Confucianism constitute the background of modern Korean culture. Since World War II, and especially after the Korean War, globalization and rapid political and economic development have had a marked effect on the country’s culture. Traditional thought, however, still plays an important role under the surface. Korea belongs historically to the Chinese cultural realm. After the Three Kingdoms period in particular, Korean culture was strongly influenced by the Chinese, although this influence was given a distinctive Korean stamp.

A number of Korean cultural sites have been named UNESCO World Heritage sites. These include the depositories for the Tripitaka Koreana (one of the most complete editions of Buddhist canonical writings in the world), located at Haein Temple, west of Taegu (designated 1995); several dolmen (stone burial monument) sites from the 1st millennium BCE in the southwestern part of the country (2000); and the volcanic island of Cheju and its lava-tube cave system (2007).

Daily life and social customs
The once-dominant Confucian culture—with its emphasis on respect for ancestors, age, and seniority—continues to influence Korean family, work, and social life, albeit to a lesser degree than in the past. In addition to other factors, such as economic status and position in a business hierarchy, age and marital status are among the determinants of relative seniority, and there is some expectation that even between social acquaintances these factors—especially age—will influence relations.

Traditional family life is much involved with rituals marking life-cycle milestones and the observation of holidays and ancestral rites. The most important passages in a person’s life are the completion of a baby’s first 100 days, one’s marriage, and one’s 61st birthday. According to traditional Korean belief, the spirits of the departed do not leave the earth for several generations; thus, deceased parents and grandparents are still considered part of the family. Ancestral rites (cherye) are performed to honour them on death anniversaries and on major holidays. Two of the most important holidays are Sŏllal (Lunar New Year) and Chusŏk (harvest moon festival, often referred to as the Korean Thanksgiving), both observed according to the lunar calendar. These are marked by the gathering of families in the ancestral hometown or at the home of the head of the family. Traditional elements of holiday celebrations include the formal, respectful greeting of elders, the preparation and eating of special foods such as specific types of rice cakes (ddŏk), and the wearing of traditional dress (hanbok).

Hanbok was the everyday dress of Koreans for thousands of years before the opening of the country to the West. Western dress has supplanted the hanbok almost everywhere, but even urban dwellers commonly still wear it on special occasions such as important family meetings, holidays, weddings, and funerals. Women’s and girls’ formal hanbok consists of several layers of undergarments under a colourful, long billowing skirt and short jacket held closed with a long tie. The men’s and boys’ version consists of full-legged pants and a long, wide-sleeved jacket. There are different hanbok for special occasions, such as weddings, babies’ birthdays, and 61st-birthday celebrations.

Food is an important part of Korean cultural identity. In the diets of even the most Westernized urban dwellers, traditional Korean cuisine, which emphasizes grains—especially rice—and fresh vegetables, continues to occupy a dominant role even amid the popularity of pizza, hamburgers, sushi, Chinese food, and other foreign dishes. A Korean meal generally consists of rice, soup or stew, and a number of side dishes, almost invariably among them kimchi, or pickled vegetables. Such is the importance of kimchi in the national diet that an estimated 160 or more varieties have been identified, and there is a museum in Seoul dedicated to the dish. The most common type is the spicy paech’u (Chinese cabbage) kimchi. Although many families today buy most of their kimchi in supermarkets, many others still make their own. The traditional practice of kimjang, in which villages and families devoted several days in the autumn to preparing the winter supply of kimchi, is celebrated in such annual kimjang festivals as that held in the southwestern city of Kwangju. Other popular Korean dishes are bibimbap (rice mixed with vegetables, egg, a spicy sauce, and sometimes meat), jjajangmyŏn (noodles in a black-bean sauce), pulgogi (or bulgogi; marinated meat grilled over charcoal), and samgyet’ang (a soup of stewed whole chicken stuffed with rice and ginseng), which is eaten as a restorative, particularly during hot weather.

The arts
Traveling troupes that performed shadow or puppet plays, did acrobatics and juggling, danced and sang, and performed versions of court or popular entertainments were long a feature of Korean village and provincial town life. Among the oldest forms of Korean dance and theatre performance is the masked dance. In addition to professional groups, villagers in different areas of the country formed folk groups to perform their own local versions of the sandae masked play and dances. Today the sandae is performed by villagers in Kyŏnggi and South Kyŏngsang provinces as well as in parts of North Korea. Performers are males. Masks cover either the whole head or the face and are made from paper or gourds or, occasionally, are carved from wood. They are boldly painted to represent the stock characters of the play: monks, shaman, noblemen, young dancing girl, and others.

Early history
Kyrgyz history can be traced at least to the 1st century BCE. The probable abodes of the early Kyrgyz were in the upper Yenisey River valley of central Siberia, and the Tashtyk culture (1st century BCE–5th century CE), an amalgam of Asiatic and European peoples, may have been theirs. Chinese and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th century CE describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes. They were viewed as a forest-dwelling “northern” people who used skis and practiced shamanism. In the mid-9th century the Kyrgyz, by then certainly Turkic-speaking, overthrew the Uighur empire in Mongolia but did not settle there; they essentially remained a people of the forest. According to the Persian geography Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (982), the Kyrgyz lived at the edge of the “Uninhabited Lands of the North”; the 11th-century grammarian Maḥmūd al-Kāshgharī mentions that their language was Turkic. Because of their secluded habitats, the Kyrgyz remained outside the mainstream of Inner Asian history, a fact that allowed them to survive the Mongol deluge that completely altered the Inner Asian political landscape. In 1207 the Kyrgyz surrendered to Genghis Khan’s son Jöchi. By so doing, they not only escaped destruction but also remained beyond the immediate reach of Islam. In the late 16th century shamanism was still flourishing among them.

By the 16th–17th century most of the remaining Kyrgyz tribes lived in the Tien Shan range as mountain nomads, divided into two wings (left and right), though the advancing Russians still encountered remnants of the Yenisey branch of the Kyrgyz. In 1703, under pressure from the Dzungars (a tribe of western Mongols), the Yenisey Kyrgyz moved to the Semirechye, but hostilities between the two peoples continued until China’s defeat of the Dzungar leader Amursana in 1757. In the mid-18th century, nominally at least, the Kyrgyz became part of the Qing (Manchu) empire of China. Between 1825 and 1830 they were conquered by Muhammad ʿAli, the khan of Kokand; Bishkek (Pishpek), the future capital city of the Kyrgyz, was built by that khanate. Through these contacts, Islam was gradually adopted by the more-southern Kyrgyz, although it has remained merely a veneer on the national culture.

Russian and Soviet rule
Between 1835 and 1858 two Tien Shan Kyrgyz tribes, the Sarybagysh and the Bugu, engaged in a fratricidal war in which both sides alternately sought and obtained Kokandian or Russian help. In 1855 the Bugu voluntarily submitted to the Russians, and it was at their request that the Russians built the fort of Aksu in 1863.

The Kyrgyz tribes thus entered the modern era divided, harassed by Russians and Kokandians alike. The periodic revolts of the southern Kyrgyz against the Kokand khanate in the mid-19th century received no Russian support. But Russian immigration into Kyrgyz territories, rather than warfare, posed the real threat to Kyrgyz existence. Poor Russian peasants escaping from servitude and famine appropriated the winter pasturelands of the Kyrgyz, forcing them to move into the mountains. The Russian colonists did teach the Kyrgyz some new agricultural techniques, but on the whole their impact was nothing short of disastrous. In 1916 Kyrgyz discontent erupted in a serious revolt, which was met with brutal and prolonged repression that continued even after the fall of Russia’s tsarist regime.

Under Soviet rule the Kyrgyz found it difficult to assert themselves as a separate national entity. Confusion concerning their very name persists in the West because, under the tsars, the Kyrgyz were wrongly labeled Kara-Kirgiz in order to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, whom the Russians called Kirgiz to distinguish them from the Cossacks (Russian: Kazaky). In 1924 an autonomous Kirgiz oblast (province) was created within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1926 its status was transformed into that of an autonomous republic, and in 1936 a full union republic was created, the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic, often called Kirgiziya.

In the second half of the 20th century, economic progress and general modernization did not succeed in eradicating tensions between Russians and Kyrgyz. Among the Central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan was perhaps the most eager to obtain full independence. After more than 1,000 years of disunity, statelessness, and foreign subjection, Kyrgyzstan joined the world’s independent countries on August 31, 1991.

Independent Kyrgyzstan
Early independence and the presidency of Askar Akayev
Under President Askar Akayev, Kyrgyzstan developed all the institutions of a modern democracy, including an open press, an independent judiciary, and a freely elected parliament. Yet the new country experienced numerous challenges. Kyrgyzstan saw a sharp economic decline beginning in the mid-1990s, in part because of a shortage of raw materials and the emigration of many Russian and German professionals. Moreover, Akayev’s government was accused of widespread corruption, and the president was denounced for abusing his power. The press, though ostensibly free, was subject to official intimidation and, from 1995, to a series of state regulations.

The country’s main external threat was the infiltration of large numbers of Islamist guerrillas moving between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. In 2001 the government granted U.S. and allied forces the right to establish a base at Manas to conduct operations against the Taliban and al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. A Russian air base was established in Kyrgyzstan in 2003 to support a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) rapid reaction force intended to defend CIS countries from Islamist guerrillas. The lease with Russia was renewed in 2012 for a 15-year extension while in 2013 the Kyrgyz parliament voted overwhelmingly to end the U.S. lease. U.S. forces withdrew from the base in July 2014.

The Tulip Revolution and the presidency of Kurmanbek Bakiyev
Flawed parliamentary elections in 2005 and a widespread perception of government corruption led to mass demonstrations in March of that year. The “Tulip Revolution,” quite surprisingly, led to the sudden and rapid collapse of the Akayev government. The president fled the country on March 24 and resigned several days later. In July elections, which were largely deemed free and fair by Western observers, Kurmanbek Bakiyev was chosen president.

The period following Bakiyev’s election was marked by political instability as the new president worked to assert his authority. Although Bakiyev employed a number of authoritarian practices to consolidate his power—including undermining the opposition and promoting associates and relatives to important posts—he neither achieved full authority nor moved Kyrgyz politics firmly into authoritarianism. Bakiyev faced emerging criticism on a number of key issues, however, including a perceived increase in corruption, which had been a central factor leading to the demonstrations against the government he had been elected to replace. In addition, the parliament installed under Akayev by the flawed elections of 2005 remained a locus of political instability, and Bakiyev’s failure to hold new parliamentary elections was widely criticized.

In October 2007 a referendum proposing a new code of electoral law and a series of significant constitutional changes was overwhelmingly approved in an election criticized by observers for its failure to meet international standards. The referendum increased the number of seats in parliament and provided for their allotment on the basis of party lists rather than individual candidacy; this was widely seen as a move by Bakiyev to bolster his newly formed Ak Zhol party and further undermine the opposition. The referendum also granted the president the right to dissolve the government at will. Bakiyev accordingly did so immediately following the announcement of the referendum results and called for early elections, which were held in December. Ak Zhol won the majority of the seats, controlling nearly four-fifths of the newly expanded Kyrgyz parliament. Although Bakiyev lauded the election proceedings, both local and international observers expressed concern about reports of widespread violations, including purchased votes and the elimination of opposition candidates from the election.

As Bakiyev’s term progressed, opposition figures accused him of intimidation and a dwindling tolerance for dissent. In the period leading up to the presidential election of 2009, in which Bakiyev sought reelection, attacks on journalists were perpetrated with increasing frequency and were criticized by observers as an attempt to stifle dissent. The election was held on July 23, 2009, and, as voting progressed, Bakiyev’s main challenger alleged widespread electoral fraud and effectively withdrew himself from the race before the polls had even closed. Official election results credited Bakiyev with a landslide victory of more than three-fourths of the vote, although international observers likewise expressed concerns with the conduct of the election.

Protest against Bakiyev’s increasingly authoritarian policies and accusations of corruption both played a role in the outbreak of violent unrest in April 2010, but the more immediate cause appeared to be a steep increase in the cost of utilities. In early April, thousands of protesters attempted to storm the main government building in Bishkek in an apparent effort to overthrow the government. Failing to disperse the crowds with tear gas and stun grenades, riot police fired with live ammunition, killing some 80 people and wounding hundreds more. On April 7 the Kyrgyz government declared a state of emergency in response to the unrest as simultaneous demonstrations broke out in Naryn, Tokmak, and Talas, where protesters seized government offices. By the early hours of April 8, Bakiyev had fled the capital by plane, and the opposition had announced the formation of an interim government.

Although he issued statements condemning the events, Bakiyev’s precise whereabouts were unclear until several days later, when he emerged near Jalal-Abad, farther south. Meanwhile, the opposition, led by former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva, worked to consolidate its hold on power, replacing government officials in numerous positions and holding conversations with U.S. and Russian leaders. Although Bakiyev initially insisted that he retained popular support and would not step down, the opposition claimed to have received his resignation, and on April 15 Bakiyev departed Kyrgyzstan, leaving the country in the hands of the interim government with Otunbayeva serving as president. Several days later, however, from exile in Belarus, Bakiyev denied having resigned and insisted that he was still in fact the country’s legitimate president. Meanwhile, as looting and unrest sparked by the political conflict continued, the interim government authorized the use of deadly force to restore order.

Almost two months after the transfer of power, ethnic violence between the Kyrgyz majority and the Uzbek minority erupted in the south of the country, particularly in and around Osh. With the interim government unable to bring the region under its control, this outbreak of violence resulted in the deaths of scores of Uzbeks and a smaller number of Kyrgyz, as well as the dislocation of hundreds of thousands. Reports also alleged that atrocities had been committed by Kyrgyz troops, suggesting that the military was not fully under government control. The interim government did not immediately respond to these allegations and instead accused Bakiyev of fomenting the unrest. Meanwhile, Uzbeks claimed zones of autonomy in the south and refused to account to the central government, threatening to fracture the country.

Although the violence had cast into doubt the ability of the interim government to hold a scheduled referendum on a new constitution, in late June the vote took place as planned. The new constitution was approved by some 90 percent of voters in an election international observers held to be free and fair.

Ethnic groups
The Kyrgyz, formerly a transhumant (nomadic) people, were settled into collectivized agriculture by the Soviet regime. Besides Kyrgyz, the country’s population includes minorities of Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, and Germans (exiled to the region from European parts of the Soviet Union in 1941), as well as Tatars, Kazakhs, Dungans (Hui; Chinese Muslims), Uighurs, and Tajiks. Since independence in 1991, many Russians and Germans have emigrated. Nearly three-fourths of the population is Kyrgyz, while about one-seventh is Uzbek. The other ethnic groups make up the remaining one-eighth of the population.

Languages
Most Kyrgyz speak a language belonging to the northwestern group of the Turkic languages, especially Kyrgyz. A sizeable minority speak Uzbek, a Turkic language of the southeastern branch. Russian is also spoken, and official language status has been accorded to both Kyrgyz and Russian.

Cultural Life
Starting in the 1920s and ’30s, several Kyrgyz-language newspapers appeared regularly in the republic, but they were subject to Soviet censorship. With the collapse of Moscow’s control over the press, the editorial policies of the republic’s publications have changed noticeably, and new press outlets have appeared, though press freedom has occasionally been curtailed. Kyrgyzstan has a television network, extensive radio broadcasting, cinemas, and theatres. Kyrgyz cultural life has been greatly influenced by the rich oral literary tradition (including epic cycles and lyric poetry) of the region, by the development of a modern literary language, and by the change from the Arabic alphabet to Roman and finally to Cyrillic (with diacritical markings added) beginning in 1940. The Kyrgyz planned a return to the Roman alphabet in the 1990s, in concert with the other Turkic-speaking countries of Central Asia. Kyrgyz folk singers still recite the lengthy verse epic Manas and other heroic and lyric poetry, often to the accompaniment of the three-stringed komuz, which is plucked like a lute.

During the Soviet period Kyrgyz poets strove to adjust their writings to communist ideology and the tenets of Socialist Realism. But the character of Kyrgyz cultural life has undergone considerable change in the wake of the dissolution of the Communist Party and the cessation of its tight ideological controls.

The Kyrgyz take pride in the renown of Chingiz Aytmatov, a novelist and storywriter who wrote mainly in Russian but also in Kyrgyz. His Povesti gor i stepey (1963; Tales of Mountains and Steppes) and the more recent I dol’she veka dlit’sia den’ (1980; The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years) and Plakha (1986; The Place of the Skull) have received wide circulation in Russian and in English translations. Aytmatov’s play Voskhozhdenie na Fudziiamu (1973; The Ascent of Mt. Fuji), written with Kazakh playwright Kaltay Muhamedjanov, discusses rather openly the moral compromises made under the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. This play created a sensation when it was first staged in Moscow in 1973 and later in English-language productions abroad.

State-sponsored folk dance troupes, a theatre of opera and ballet, and the Kyrgyzstan Philharmonic Orchestra perform in concert halls and theatre buildings erected during the Soviet period. The Museum of History and the Arts is located in Bishkek.

A trip through Lebanon is a journey through the annals of some of the world’s greatest civilizations. With over 5,000 years of recorded history, the country is a treasure trove of archaeological wonders, waiting to be discovered by visitors who want a glimpse into the ancient and modern past. Most of Lebanon’s historical sites have layers upon layers of ruins, with each layer uncovering the story of another civilization that inhabited this ancient land.
– Prehistoric Times
– Phoenicians
– Greeks
– Romans
– Byzantines
– Arabs
– Crusaders
– Mamlukes & Ottomans

Prehistoric Times (5,000-3,500 B.C.)
A trip through Lebanon’s history begins in Jbail (Byblos), where archaeologists have discovered the earliest known settlements in Lebanon. Today, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.

Phoenicians (3,500-334 B.C.)
Lebanon first appeared in recorded history around 3,000 BC, with the settlement of the area by the Canaanites. The Canaanites established great maritime, trade, and religious city-states in several of Lebanon’s coastal cities: Jbail (Byblos), Sour (Tyre), Saida (Sidon), and Beirut. The Greeks referred to these Semitic people as “Phoenicians,” after the Greek word for the expensive purple-dyed textiles that the Phoenicians exported.

Jbail (Byblos) was a significant Phoenician religious center and also an important trading center with close links to the Egyptian Pharaohs. The city is also recognized as the birthplace of the modern Roman alphabet, which evolved from Phoenician phonetic script. Phoenician ruins include the remnants of fortified city walls and gates, several temples, and the underground tombs of the Byblos kings.

Saida (Sidon) became a dominant commercial center for the region during the 12th-10th centuries B.C. Close to Saida (Sidon), visitors can view the ruins of the Phoenician Temple of Echmoun, a complex honoring the principal god of the city of Saida (Sidon). This is the best-preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon today.
The Phoenician island city of Sour (Tyre) surpassed Saida to become the dominant trading center under its most famous ruler, King Hiram I (10th century B.C.). Allied with King Solomon, King Hiram I led the Phoenician expansion into Sicily and North Africa. During this time, the Mediterranean Sea became known as the “Tyrian Sea.” King Hiram is also remembered for supporting the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem by supplying labor, gold, and cedar wood. While there are few evident Phoenician ruins in Sour (Tyre) today, visitors can see the jetties and breakwaters from the ancient island cities just off the coast of the city. The Tomb of King Hiram is also located just a few kilometers from Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek was an inland city, at the crossroads of the major north-south and east-west trading routes, settled by the Phoenicians as early as 2,000 B.C. The Phoenicians built the first temple here, dedicated to the god Baal, the Sun God, from which the city got its name. Today, Baalbek’s Phoenician origins have been covered and eclipsed by the great Roman temples later built on the site.

Greeks (333-64 B.C.)
In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Phoenician city-states, and ancient Phoenicia was absorbed into the Greek Empire (which covered Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East). Greek customs and the Greek language were adopted. Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. (only 10 years after his conquest of the Middle East), and over 250 years of unrest and dynastic struggles followed. Greek rule in the region was finally overturned by the Roman General Pompey in 64 B.C.
While there are no significant ruins from the Hellenistic period in Lebanon, one notable Greek site for history-lovers is in Sour (Tyre). While most of the Phoenician cities submitted immediately to Alexander the Great’s conquest in 333 B.C., Sour (Tyre) resisted in a year-long siege that destroyed much of the city. Alexander used the debris from the abandoned mainland city to build a causeway to reach the fortified island city and eventually conquer the Tyrians. Today, this causeway has been enlarged with sand to form a peninsula that connects the ancient island city to the mainland. As you walk between the major archaeological sites in Sour (Tyre), you will cross this “Quarter of Sand” (Hay El-Ramel) that was once Alexander’s causeway.

Romans (64 B.C. – 399 A.D.)
Roman rule in Lebanon lasted over 300 years. During this period, the old Phoenician cities continued to grow and prosper as centers of industry and commerce. The coastal cities (Saida, Sour, Beirut) exported cedar, perfume, jewelry, wine, and fruit to Rome and served as trading centers for goods imported from Syria, Persia, and India. Local industries, including the production of silk, glass, purple-dyed textiles, and pottery, flourished under the Romans. Temples and palaces were built throughout the country, as well as paved roads that linked the cities. Christianity also spread to Lebanon during this era, and flourished as the Roman emperors officially adopted the religion.
For a modern-day visitor, it is difficult to travel more than a few kilometers in Lebanon without running into a Roman-era ruin. The country is home to some of the best-preserved and most impressive Roman sites in the world, most notably at Baalbek and Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek’s impressive complex of temples and city ruins includes the Temple of Bacchus (the best-preserved temple in the Middle East) and the columns of the Temple of Jupiter (the largest Roman temple ever constructed). Under the Romans, Baalbek, or the “City of the Sun,” was a major religious center that served as a testament to the power and wealth of the Roman Empire.

The city of Sour (Tyre) became the capital of the Roman province of Syria-Phoenicia. Roman-era highlights include the world’s largest Roman hippodrome (where chariot races were held), an enormous triumphal arch, an extensive necropolis, and the remains of Roman aqueducts.
In Jbail (Byblos), artifacts include the remains of a Roman theater, columns lining the main thoroughfare of the ancient city, and a Roman nympheum (a monumental public fountain).

In the Central Business District of Beirut, visitors can view the remains of a large Roman bath complex and a market area, as well as the columns and foundations of large buildings.

Byzantines (399-636 A.D.)
The Byzantine era in Lebanon began with the split of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D. into the eastern/Byzantine part (with its capital at Constantinople) and the western part (with its capital at Rome). As the Western Roman Empire declined, the Byzantine Empire grew and commercial and intellectual growth in Lebanon’s cities continued.

However, around the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., ecumenical debates and corruption in the church led to increasing unrest. From this religious dissension, the Maronite Church was established and took refuge in the mountainous Qadisha Valley region of Lebanon, and the Valley has remained a place of spiritual refuge and pilgrimage to this day. There are many archaeological remains of Lebanon’s Byzantine era around the country, many built on top of and added to previous civilizations’ cities and sites.

In Baalbek, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of the Temple of Jupiter and built a basilica using the temple’s stones and architectural elements. The remnants of this basilica can still be seen near the stairway of the Temple.

In Sour (Tyre), the city entered a golden era during this time period. Today, Byzantine stone mosaics line the ancient colonnaded street at the Al-Mina archaeological site (“City Site”). The Al-Bass Site contains the remains of a Byzantine church, as well as a necropolis containing hundreds of ornate stone and marble sarcophagi from the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Arabs (660-1258 A.D.)
Many clashes took place at this period between the Byzantine Empire and its opponents mainly the Muslims whose widespread reached the borders of the empire.
The Umayyad Dynasty, which flourished for 100 years (660-750 A.D.) in the first century after Muhammed, was the first of two dynasties of the Arab Islamic empire. The Umayyad caliphs were notable for establishing a large empire, which extended from Spain, through North Africa, to Central Asia. They established Arabic as the official language of the empire, and they are remembered for their excellent city administration and planning and their patronage of early Islamic art and architecture. Following a coup, the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258 A.D.), who shifted power eastward to Baghdad and imposed harsh control in Lebanon and Syria, leading to many local revolts.

Under Arab rule, the region of Lebanon became a refuge for many ethnic and religious groups. Splinter Christian groups, including the Maronites and the Melchites, settled in the Qadisha Valley and Zahlé. Islamic followers of an Egyptian caliph settled in southern Lebanon and established the Druze sect, still a major religious group in the Chouf and other areas of modern-day Lebanon. Shiite Muslims from Egypt also had increasing influence in the region during this era.
Lebanon’s cities continued to prosper as trading and industrial centers under Arab rule. However, there are few archaeological remnants of this period in Lebanon today.

The impressive city of Aanjar is the only known remain of the 8th century Umayyad Dynasty in Lebanon. Thought to be the summer home of Caliph Walid I, Aanjar was a major commercial center for the region and contains the remains of over 600 small shops, colonnaded boulevards, baths, and temples.

Crusaders (1099-1291 A.D.)
As Arab leadership fragmented, and following Caliph Al-Hakim’s occupation of Christian holy places in Palestine and destruction of the Holy Sepulcher, the Christians of western Europe undertook a series of “Crusades” to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. The European Crusaders joined with the Byzantine army to take Jerusalem and then marched along the Lebanese coast. Between 1109 and 1124, Lebanon’s key cities (Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, Sour) were all conquered by the Crusaders. Soon after, the Muslim reconquest began, led by Saladin, with the region returning to Muslim control by 1291.

One lasting influence of the Crusades in Lebanon was the creation of renewed linkages between the Maronites and the Roman Catholics. In 1180, the Maronite Church entered a formal union with the Roman Catholic Church, a union that still exists today. There are also numerous archaeological remnants (towers, castles, and churches) of the Crusades scattered along the Lebanese coast and throughout the countryside. Notable sites include:

The Saida Sea Castle, which sits on a small island in the harbor, connected by a stone bridge to mainland Saida (Sidon).
The Citadel of Saint-Gilles, a large fortress on a hill in the center of Tripoli.
The ruins of the stone walls and moats of a Crusader castle can be seen in the town of Enfé, south of Tripoli.
The ruins of the Holy Cross Cathedral, an important Crusader church in Sour (Tyre).

Mamlukes (1250-1516 A.D.) & Ottomans (1516-1914 A.D.)
Following the Crusades, modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt came under the control of the Mamlukes. The Mamlukes were originally slave bodyguards (from the Caspian and Caucasus regions) for the Egyptian Ayoubid sultans. However, the Mamlukes overthrew their masters and formed the Mamluke Sultanate. Many Shiite Muslims migrated to Lebanon during this period, and there were increasing religious tensions. After a number of rebellions near Beirut were crushed, the Shiites moved to settle in Southern Lebanon.

The Mamlukes were defeated by the Turkish Ottomans in 1516, and the Ottomans dominated the region for the four centuries preceding World War I.

A tour in the Lebanese History:
At origins: Archeologists in Lebanon have discovered remnants around a million years old, and human traces from the Paleolithic era (around 8,500 B.C.) in grottos.

The Phoenician Era: The history of Lebanon as we know it starts with the Cannanean – Phoenician civilizations. Around 3,500 B.C., the Phoenicians put up their trading counters on the Lebanese coast. These trading city-states rapidly become small yet wealthy kingdoms, like Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Arados.
800 B.C.: The Phoenician’s long-lived prosperity starts to decline with the uprising of the Assyrian empire. The latter will be followed by the Babylonians, the Persians and the Greeks.
64 B.C.: The last of the Phoenician cities surrender to the Syrian province of the Roman Empire after their conquest of Pompée.
Up to the year 395 A.C: Commercial and cultural activities prosper and Christianity develops under the Roman domination. Then the Byzantine Empire takes over the control of the region.
637 A.C: Lebanon is conquered by the Arabs and becomes a state of the Omayyad califes before it becomes dominated by the Francs from 1099 to 1291 A.C..
1291 to 1516 A.C.: The crusaders are driven away by the Mamelouks who develop Beirut’s commercial port’s activities.
1516 to 1918 A.C.: The Ottomans reign over the country as masters, however leaving its management to the local emirs.
During the 19th century: Lebanons’ fate vacillates between the Ottoman power and an autonomy that was imposed by Europe. The latter supported the local development of religious communities. A portion of the country’s population, supported by the Europeans, demands its autonomy.
1841: The Mount Lebanon Province is divided into two districts: to the North, the maronites (Bikfaya and the Metn), and to the South the Druze (Beit ed-Dine and the Chouf).
1860: Following the massacre of thousands of Christians by the Druze and Ottomans, Napoleon the 3rd sends an expeditionary mission to Lebanon. This will lead to the autonomy of Lebanon in 1864.
1866: The American University in Beirut is founded.
1875: The St Joseph University is founded.
1916: France and Great Britain sign the Sykes-Picot treaties. Russia ratifies the treaties which separate the Ottoman Empire into influential zones. France awards itself the libanese-syrian coastal strip, among other territories.
1920: Marks the start of the French mandate following the signature of the Sèvres treaty. The state of Great Lebanon is proclaimed.
1943: The independence of the Lebanese Republic is effective on the 22nd of November. Bechara El-Khoury and Ryad Solh conclude a “national pact” which sets the rules of representation for each religious community.
1945: Lebanon participates to the foundation of the Arab League.
1946: French troops leave Lebanon from March to December. The first twenty years of independence are those of great economic prosperity in the Lebanese Republic.
1958: Lebanon is shaken by a civil war (May till September) that is motivated by a disagreement on Egypt and Syria’s joining into the United Arab Republic. President Camille Chamoun, who was opposed to Gamal A.Nasser, calls the United States to the rescue in an effort to save his regime. American troops are sent to Lebanon, however it is the election of President General Chehab that will resolve the crisis. The latter will conduct a policy centered on Arab solidarity.
1967: The 6 Days war drives around 450,000 Palestinians to find refuge in Lebanon.
1969: The first conflict between the Lebanese Government and the Palestinian movement leads to the Cairo agreements which authorized the presence of the Palestinian army in South Lebanon.
1973: Confrontations between the Lebanese army and the Palestinian PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) militia become more and more frequent. Moreover, a number of Palestinian leaders are assassinated by the Israeli commandos. Tension builds up and leads to the burst of the civil war in April 1975.
1975 – 1989: Lebanon endures the civil war.
1976: Syrian troops make an entry in Lebanon in June.
1978: The Syrian troops turn against the Lebanese “Phalangistes”, while Israel occupies the southern Lebanese territory up to the Litani river.
1982: Israel initiates operation “Peace in Galilee” and reaches Beyrouth. The siege of the capital forces the PLO and its leader to flee Beyrouth. The same year, the massacres of the Sabra and Chatila camps are perpetrated.
1984: The Multinational Peace Force leaves Lebanon as violence takes on new heights.
1985: Israel retrieves from the Lebanese Territory but retains the control of a “Security Zone” on the Southern border.
1989: The Taëf agreements are signed on the 22nd of October in Saudi Arabia, thus putting an end to the civil war. The agreements recommend an equitable redistribution of power and a revision of the Lebanese constitution. Following the assassination of President René Moawad, Elias Hraoui is elected to the Presidency of the Lebanese Republic.
1990: The 2nd Lebanese Republic is proclaimed.
1991: Lebanon and Syria sign a common treaty. The new national coalition government summons the break down of armed militias.
1992: Rafic Hariri is elected Prime Minister in October, and the reconstruction of the country and its capital begins.
1996: Israel launches an armed operation called “the Grapes of Wrath” against the Hezbollah positions in Southern Lebanon.
1998: General Emile Lahoud is elected President on the 24th of November.
2000: In May, Israel retrieves its troops from the south.
2005: On the 14th of February, Prime Minister Rafic Hariri is killed, along with 22 others, in a car bomb attack.
2005: In April, Syria retrieves all of its troops from Lebanon in accordance with an agreement signed with the UN.
2006: Israel carries a military offensive in Lebanon from the 12th until the 14th of August.
2008:(25 May) the election of General Michel Sleiman as President of the republic.

Lebanon’s diverse patchwork of Mediterranean-lapped coast, rugged alpine peaks, and green fertile valleys is packed into a parcel of land some 225km long and 46km wide – an area approximately the size of Cyprus or Connecticut. An ancient land, Lebanon features in the writings of Homer and in the Old Testament. Its cities were major outposts and seaports in Phoenician and Roman times, just two of the great civilizations that touched this important Middle Eastern crossroads.

The cosmopolitan flair of modern-day Beirut, the gastronomic renown of the country’s food and wine, and an educated and outward-looking population complement a country that is both traditional and progressive in outlook. For all the flavors of its storied past and rugged natural beauty, Lebanon is a well-kept tourist secret that begs exploration.

There are four main geographic regions in Lebanon, differentiated by topography and climate. From west to east, they include: the coastal plain, the Mount Lebanon Range, the Békaa Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon Range.

The Anti-Lebanon Range is a stretch of arid mountains that rise to the east of the Békaa Valley and form part of the country’s eastern border with Syria.

The Békaa Valley, known in ancient times as “the breadbasket” or “granary” of the Roman Empire, is still the country’s main agricultural region. Located on a high plateau between the country’s two mountain ranges, the river-fed Békaa supports the production of tomatoes, potatoes, wheat, olives, and grapes, even despite summers that are hot and dry.

Besides some of Lebanon’s best wineries (Ksara, Kefraya, Massaya), the Békaa’s major attraction is the ruins at Baalbek. Originating as a place of worship to Baal, the Phoenician Sun God, Baalbek was known in Greco-Roman times as the famous Heliopolis, or “City of the Sun.” Perhaps because of the region’s agricultural importance in feeding the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, some of the largest Roman temples ever constructed were erected at this site. The construction lasted over 200 years, and the well-preserved temples honor Jupiter, Bacchus, and Venus.

The lovely Lebanese coast is framed by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Mount Lebanon Range to the east, its temperate climate bringing in sunny, hot summers and cool, rainy winters. The daytime temperature in the summer, which averages 30°C (86°F), encourages people to head to the beach or to the higher, altitude-cooled mountain slopes. In the coastal cities of Saida (Sidon) and Jbail (Byblos), tourists can enjoy the rare opportunity to snorkel amongst long-submerged Phoenician ruins, while excellent hiking is a mere hour away in the Chouf region of the Mount Lebanon Range.

The Mount Lebanon Range includes numerous rivers that fizz with snowmelt, steep-walled gullies that shade grottoes once the hideout to those fleeing persecution, and also Lebanon’s highest summit, Qornet Es-Saouda (3,090m). In winter, the high peaks are blanketed with snow, lending Lebanon its name, Lubnan, the Arabic word for “white.” Lebanon boasts a number of world-class ski resorts, one of only a couple countries in the Middle East where you can ski. The ski season runs from December until April.

The Mount Lebanon Range is also the location of Lebanon’s Cedar Reserves. The great cedar forests of Lebanon, now protected, are famous for their use in the construction of some of the holiest buildings in the region, indeed the world, including Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock and Solomon’s Temple.

To visit Lebanon is to dispel preconceived notions that linger from a relatively short moment in a long, vivid, and fascinating history: drink in the energetic, urbane vibe of revitalized Beirut; explore a diverse and beautiful landscape that lends itself easily to an unforgettable (and largely untrammeled) multi-sport adventure; marvel at archaeological wonders that are windows into the cradle of civilization; and simply enjoy the welcome of a people who are naturally hospitable, friendly, and gregarious.

Ethnic and linguistic composition
Lebanon has a heterogeneous society composed of numerous ethnic, religious, and kinship groups. Long-standing attachments and local communalism antedate the creation of the present territorial and political entity and continue to survive with remarkable tenacity. Ethnically, the Lebanese compose a mixture in which Phoenician, Greek, Armenian, and Arab elements are discernible. Within the larger Lebanese community, ethnic minorities including Armenian and Kurdish populations are also present. Arabic is the official language, although smaller proportions of the population are Armenian- or Kurdish-speaking; French and English are also spoken. Syriac is used in some of the churches of the Maronites (Roman Catholics following an Eastern rite).

Religion
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Lebanon’s social structure is its varied religious composition. Since the 7th century, Lebanon has served as a refuge for persecuted Christian and Muslim groups. As religion and government in Lebanon are deeply and formally intertwined, the relative proportions of the country’s religious communities is a highly sensitive matter. There has not been an official census since 1932, however, and the data depicting Lebanon’s confessional composition are variable. In general terms, the two largest groups are the Shiʿi Muslims and the Sunni Muslims, each comprising more than one-fourth of the population. Maronites, a Roman Catholic Eastern rite group that originated in the region, make up more than one-fifth of the population. A number of other Christian communities are also present, including the Greek Orthodox and the Greek Catholics. The Druze constitute a small percentage of the population but play an influential role in Lebanese society. There is also a very small Jewish minority.

Cultural milieu
Historically, Lebanon is heir to a long succession of Mediterranean cultures—Phoenician, Greek, and Arab. Its cultural milieu continues to show clear manifestations of a rich and diverse heritage. As an Arab country, Lebanon shares more than a common language with neighbouring Arab states: it also has a similar cultural heritage and common interests.

A number of Lebanon’s rich cultural sites have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites: the remains of the city of ʿAnjar (founded by al-Walīd in the early 8th century); the ruins of successive cultures at the old Phoenician cities of Baalbek, Byblos, and Tyre; and the Christian monasteries in Wadi Qādīshā, together with the nearby remains of a sacred forest of long-prized cedar.

Daily life and social customs
Lebanon’s diverse culture is a result of its admixture of various religious, linguistic, and socioeconomic groups. Family and kinship play a central role in Lebanese social relationships, in both the private and public spheres. Although family structure is traditionally largely patriarchal, women are active in education and politics.

Lebanese cuisine is characterized by a healthy mixture of herbs and vegetables, fruit, olives, olive oil, laban (yogurt), rice, and khubz (flatbread). Meals often consist of a selection of shared dishes presented all at once on several small plates, often including hummus, stuffed grape leaves, pickled vegetables, grilled meats, and tabbouleh (tabbūlah), a salad made from herbs, tomato, onion, bulgur wheat, lemon juice, and olive oil. Kibbah, an oval ball of seasoned meat stuffed into a dough made from bulgur and meat, is often considered the national dish.

Because of the country’s diverse religious makeup, Lebanese citizens observe a variety of holidays. Those celebrated by the Christian community include Easter and Christmas, the dates of which vary, as elsewhere, between the Catholic and Orthodox communities. Eid al-Fitr (which marks the end of Ramadan), Eid al-Adha (which marks the culmination of the hajj), and the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday are celebrated by Lebanese Muslims; ʿĀshūrāʾ, a holiday particular to Shiʿi Muslims, is also observed. In addition, there are several national holidays, including Liberation Day on May 25 and Independence Day on November 22.

The arts
Lebanon’s antiquities and ruins have provided not only inspiration for artists but also magnificent backdrops for annual music festivals, most notably the Baalbek International Festival. At one time, international opera, ballet, symphony, and drama companies of nearly all nationalities competed to enrich the cultural life of Beirut. Following the end of the civil war in 1990, Lebanon’s cultural life gradually began to reemerge, though that revival remained subject to interruption by periods of violence in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Lebanon has produced a number of gifted young artists who have shown a refreshing readiness to experiment with new expressive forms. Some Lebanese are active in international opera, theatre companies, and television and movie productions, while others are intent on creating a wider audience for classical Arabic music and theatre. Other artists have remained cultural staples for many years: with a career spanning several decades, the immensely popular Lebanese singer Fairouz (Fayrūz) remains a well-known vocalist and a treasured cultural icon.

The cultural awakening encouraged the revival of national folk arts, particularly song, dabkah (the national dance), and zajal (folk poetry), and the refinement of traditional crafts.

In the 19th century Lebanese linguists were in the vanguard of the Arabic literary awakening (al-nahḍah al-adabiyyah). In more recent times writers of the calibre of Khalil Gibran, Georges Shehade, Michel Chiha, and Hanan al-Shaykh have been widely translated and have reached an international audience.

The first Portuguese ship anchored in the Pearl River estuary in 1513, and further Portuguese visits followed regularly. Trade with China commenced in 1553. Four years later Portuguese paying tribute to China settled in Macau, which became the official and principal entrepôt for all international trade with China and Japan and an intermediary port for ships traveling from Lisbon to Nagasaki (at the time, Japan’s only outport for trade). China, nonetheless, still refused to recognize Portuguese sovereignty over the territory. The first governor was appointed in the 17th century, but the Portuguese remained largely under the control of the Chinese. Missionaries carried over on Portuguese ships transformed Macau into an East Asian centre of Christianity. Even though China’s trade with the outside world was gradually centralized in Guangzhou (Canton) toward the end of the 18th century, merchants were allowed into Guangzhou only during the trading season—from November to May—and the international merchant community established itself at Macau. By the mid-19th century the British colony of Hong Kong had surpassed Macau in trade, and within a few years the merchants had largely deserted the Portuguese possession, which never again was a major entrepôt.

In the 1930s and ’40s Macau, declared a neutral territory during the Sino-Japanese War and World War II, became a refuge for both Chinese and Europeans. The Chinese population in the territory continued to grow when the communist government assumed power in China in 1949. In 1951 Portugal officially made Macau an overseas province. Following a military coup in Portugal in 1974, the government allotted more administrative autonomy and economic independence to the territory. The constitution promulgated in 1976 established the Legislative Assembly, which was dominated by the minority Portuguese. Until diplomatic relations were solidified between Portugal and the communist government in China in 1979, discussions on transferring Macau to Chinese control were fruitless.

In March 1984 the Portuguese governor dissolved the assembly in response to opposition within the government to extend the right to vote to the Chinese majority. A few months later new elections, which included Chinese suffrage, finally brought a significant number of Chinese deputies into the government. In April 1987 Portugal and China reached an agreement to return Macau to Chinese rule in 1999, using the Hong Kong Joint Declaration between Britain and China as a model. They agreed to provisions under the Basic Law that would ensure the autonomy of Macau for 50 years after the start of Chinese rule. These included Macau’s right to elect local leaders, the right of its residents to travel freely, and the right to maintain its way of life, both economically and socially. Defense and foreign policy matters were to be administered by China, and those living in Macau without Portuguese passports would become Chinese citizens. Elections continued to turn out record numbers of voters and a Chinese majority legislature. On December 20, 1999, Macau became a special administrative region under Chinese sovereignty, as Hong Kong had in 1997.

The period since reunification has been peaceful and marked by increasing prosperity. Much of the region’s economic growth has come from the tremendous expansion in gambling and gaming since 2000, which transformed Macau into one of the world’s largest gambling centres (in terms of revenue). Tourism also has risen sharply from levels in the 1990s. Major infrastructure projects have included continued land reclamation throughout the region and a third bridge (opened 2005) between Macau Peninsula and Taipa Island. The political situation has been stable, with orderly legislative elections. Ho Hau Wah (Edmund Ho) was named Macau’s first chief executive at reunification in 1999; he was reelected to a second term in 2004. In 2009 Chui Sai On was elected president, succeeding Hau. By the mid-2010s his administration was facing a sharp decline in gaming revenues.

Nearly all of the population, of which a great majority lives on Macau Peninsula, is ethnic Chinese, born on either the mainland or Macau. There are also small groups of other Asians (including people of mixed Chinese and Portuguese ancestry, often called Macanese). However, the once-significant Portuguese minority has been reduced to only a small proportion of the population. Of the ethnic Chinese, the vast majority are Cantonese speakers, and a few speak Hakka. Chinese (Cantonese) and Portuguese are both official languages; English is also commonly spoken.

Macau’s population is overwhelmingly Buddhist, while others adhere to Daoism and Confucianism or combinations of the three. Among the small number of Christians, the great majority are Roman Catholics. About one-sixth of the population professes no religious affiliation.

Macau is one of the most densely populated places in the world, and the entire population is classed as urban. Macau has a relatively older population, with less than one-fourth being younger than age 25.

Chinese culture predominates, overlaid by a veneer of Portuguese architecture (notably churches and cathedrals) and customs. Chinese temples and shrines coexist with restored villas from the colonial period. Barrier Gate, which links Macau Peninsula to the mainland, is a popular spot for tourists, as are such early 17th-century structures as Monte Fort and the nearby ruined facade of St. Paul’s Cathedral (destroyed 1835). The historic buildings on the peninsula collectively were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005.

As is the case in Hong Kong, Cantonese pop (“canto-pop”) is a popular form of music. Spectator sports include both dog and horse racing. The Macau Grand Prix attracts numerous international competitors and fans of motor racing. Macau’s major sports complexes include the Macau Olympic Complex and the Macau East Asian Games Dome; the latter was built for the 2005 East Asian Games, hosted by Macau. Football (soccer), track and field, volleyball, and roller hockey are popular team and individual sports. In the 1990s Macau hosted several roller hockey world championships.

The former Luís de Camões Museum, named for the Portuguese poet and writer of the epic Os Lusíadas, was in a 17th-century house that once was used by the British East India Company; its collections are now part of the Macau Museum of Art and feature Chinese pottery, paintings, and artifacts. Adjacent to the art museum is the Macau Cultural Centre, with several performance and exhibition venues. Also of note is the Macau Museum in the Monte Fort compound, which has exhibits on the history of the region.

Local radio stations in Macau (one state-run) and a state-run television station broadcast programs in Chinese (Cantonese) and Portuguese. In addition, cable and satellite television broadcasting is available, and television and radio broadcasts also come from Hong Kong. Several daily newspapers are circulated; most are published in Chinese, but a handful are in Portuguese and English. Internet use is widespread, and mobile telephone usage is ubiquitous.

The Philippines is the only country in Southeast Asia that was subjected to Western colonization before it had the opportunity to develop either a centralized government ruling over a large territory or a dominant culture. In ancient times the inhabitants of the Philippines were a diverse agglomeration of peoples who arrived in various waves of immigration from the Asian mainland and who maintained little contact with each other. Contact with Chinese traders was recorded in 982, and some cultural influences from South Asia, such as a Sanskrit-based writing system, were carried to the islands by the Indonesian empires of Srivijaya (7th–13th century) and Majapahit (13th–16th century); but in comparison with other parts of the region, the influence of both China and India on the Philippines was of little importance. The peoples of the Philippine archipelago, unlike most of the other peoples of Southeast Asia, never adopted Hinduism or Buddhism.

Pre-Spanish history
According to what can be inferred from somewhat later accounts, the Filipinos of the 15th century must have engaged primarily in shifting cultivation, hunting, and fishing. Sedentary cultivation was the exception. Only in the mountains of northern Luzon, where elaborate rice terraces were built some 2,000 years ago, were livelihood and social organization linked to a fixed territory. The lowland peoples lived in extended kinship groups known as barangays, each under the leadership of a datu, or chieftain. The barangay, which ordinarily numbered no more than a few hundred individuals, was usually the largest stable economic and political unit.

Within the barangay the status system, though not rigid, appears to have consisted of three broad classes: the datu and his family and the nobility, freeholders, and “dependents.” This third category consisted of three levels—sharecroppers, debt peons, and war captives—the last two levels being termed “slaves” by Spanish observers. The slave status was inherited but, through manumission and interclass marriage, seldom extended over more than two generations. The fluidity of the social system was in part the consequence of a bilateral kinship system in which lineage was reckoned equally through the male and female lines. Marriage was apparently stable, though divorce was socially acceptable under certain circumstances.

Early Filipinos followed various local religions, a mixture of monotheism and polytheism in which the latter dominated. The propitiation of spirits required numerous rituals, but there was no obvious religious hierarchy. In religion, as in social structure and economic activity, there was considerable variation between—and even within—islands.

This pattern began to change in the 15th century, however, when Islam was introduced to Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago through Brunei on the island of Borneo. Along with changes in religious beliefs and practices came new political and social institutions. By the mid-16th century two sultanates had been established, bringing under their sway a number of barangays. A powerful datu as far north as Manila embraced Islam. It was in the midst of this wave of Islamic proselytism that the Spanish arrived. Had the Spanish come a century later or had their motives been strictly commercial, Filipinos today might be a predominantly Muslim people.

The Spanish period
Spanish colonial motives were not, however, strictly commercial. The Spanish at first viewed the Philippines as a stepping-stone to the riches of the East Indies (Spice Islands), but, even after the Portuguese and Dutch had foreclosed that possibility, the Spanish still maintained their presence in the archipelago.

The Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan headed the first Spanish foray to the Philippines when he made landfall on Cebu in March 1521; a short time later he met an untimely death on the nearby island of Mactan. After King Philip II (for whom the islands are named) had dispatched three further expeditions that ended in disaster, he sent out Miguel López de Legazpi, who established the first permanent Spanish settlement, in Cebu, in 1565. The Spanish city of Manila was founded in 1571, and by the end of the 16th century most of the coastal and lowland areas from Luzon to northern Mindanao were under Spanish control. Friars marched with soldiers and soon accomplished the nominal conversion to Roman Catholicism of all the local people under Spanish administration. But the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom the Spanish called Moros, were never completely subdued by Spain.

Spanish rule for the first 100 years was exercised in most areas through a type of tax farming imported from the Americas and known as the encomienda. But abusive treatment of the local tribute payers and neglect of religious instruction by encomenderos (collectors of the tribute), as well as frequent withholding of revenues from the crown, caused the Spanish to abandon the system by the end of the 17th century. The governor-general, himself appointed by the king, began to appoint his own civil and military governors to rule directly.

Central government in Manila retained a medieval cast until the 19th century, and the governor-general was so powerful that he was often likened to an independent monarch. He dominated the Audiencia, or high court, was captain-general of the armed forces, and enjoyed the privilege of engaging in commerce for private profit.

Manila dominated the islands not only as the political capital. The galleon trade with Acapulco, Mex., assured Manila’s commercial primacy as well. The exchange of Chinese silks for Mexican silver not only kept in Manila those Spanish who were seeking quick profit, but it also attracted a large Chinese community. The Chinese, despite being the victims of periodic massacres at the hands of suspicious Spanish, persisted and soon established a dominance of commerce that survived through the centuries.

Manila was also the ecclesiastical capital of the Philippines. The governor-general was civil head of the church in the islands, but the archbishop vied with him for political supremacy. In the late 17th and 18th centuries the archbishop, who also had the legal status of lieutenant governor, frequently won. Augmenting their political power, religious orders, Roman Catholic hospitals and schools, and bishops acquired great wealth, mostly in land. Royal grants and devises formed the core of their holdings, but many arbitrary extensions were made beyond the boundaries of the original grants.

The power of the church derived not simply from wealth and official status. The priests and friars had a command of local languages rare among the lay Spanish, and in the provinces they outnumbered civil officials. Thus, they were an invaluable source of information to the colonial government. The cultural goal of the Spanish clergy was nothing less than the full Christianization and Hispanization of the Filipino. In the first decades of missionary work, local religions were vigorously suppressed; old practices were not tolerated. But as the Christian laity grew in number and the zeal of the clergy waned, it became increasingly difficult to prevent the preservation of ancient beliefs and customs under Roman Catholic garb. Thus, even in the area of religion, pre-Spanish Filipino culture was not entirely destroyed.

Economic and political institutions were also altered under Spanish impact but perhaps less thoroughly than in the religious realm. The priests tried to move all the people into pueblos, or villages, surrounding the great stone churches. But the dispersed demographic patterns of the old barangays largely persisted. Nevertheless, the datu’s once hereditary position became subject to Spanish appointment.

Agricultural technology changed very slowly until the late 18th century, as shifting cultivation gradually gave way to more intensive sedentary farming, partly under the guidance of the friars. The socioeconomic consequences of the Spanish policies that accompanied this shift reinforced class differences. The datus and other representatives of the old noble class took advantage of the introduction of the Western concept of absolute ownership of land to claim as their own fields cultivated by their various retainers, even though traditional land rights had been limited to usufruct. These heirs of pre-Spanish nobility were known as the principalia and played an important role in the friar-dominated local government.

The 19th century
By the late 18th century, political and economic changes in Europe were finally beginning to affect Spain and, thus, the Philippines. Important as a stimulus to trade was the gradual elimination of the monopoly enjoyed by the galleon to Acapulco. The last galleon arrived in Manila in 1815, and by the mid-1830s Manila was open to foreign merchants almost without restriction. The demand for Philippine sugar and abaca (hemp) grew apace, and the volume of exports to Europe expanded even further after the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869.

The growth of commercial agriculture resulted in the appearance of a new class. Alongside the landholdings of the church and the rice estates of the pre-Spanish nobility there arose haciendas of coffee, hemp, and sugar, often the property of enterprising Chinese-Filipino mestizos. Some of the families that gained prominence in the 19th century have continued to play an important role in Philippine economics and politics.

Not until 1863 was there public education in the Philippines, and even then the church controlled the curriculum. Less than one-fifth of those who went to school could read and write Spanish, and far fewer could speak it properly. The limited higher education in the colony was entirely under clerical direction, but by the 1880s many sons of the wealthy were sent to Europe to study. There, nationalism and a passion for reform blossomed in the liberal atmosphere. Out of this talented group of overseas Filipino students arose what came to be known as the Propaganda Movement. Magazines, poetry, and pamphleteering flourished. José Rizal, this movement’s most brilliant figure, produced two political novels—Noli me tangere (1887; Touch Me Not) and El filibusterismo (1891; The Reign of Greed)—which had a wide impact in the Philippines. In 1892 Rizal returned home and formed the Liga Filipina, a modest reform-minded society, loyal to Spain, that breathed no word of independence. But Rizal was quickly arrested by the overly fearful Spanish, exiled to a remote island in the south, and finally executed in 1896. Meanwhile, within the Philippines there had developed a firm commitment to independence among a somewhat less privileged class.

Shocked by the arrest of Rizal in 1892, these activists quickly formed the Katipunan under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio, a self-educated warehouseman. The Katipunan was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands, and preparations were made for armed revolt. Filipino rebels had been numerous in the history of Spanish rule, but now for the first time they were inspired by nationalist ambitions and possessed the education needed to make success a real possibility.

The Philippine Revolution
In August 1896, Spanish friars uncovered evidence of the Katipunan’s plans, and its leaders were forced into premature action. Revolts broke out in several provinces around Manila. After months of fighting, severe Spanish retaliation forced the revolutionary armies to retreat to the hills. In December 1897 a truce was concluded with the Spanish. Emilio Aguinaldo, a municipal mayor and commander of the rebel forces, was paid a large sum and was allowed to go to Hong Kong with other leaders; the Spanish promised reforms as well. But reforms were slow in coming, and small bands of rebels, distrustful of Spanish promises, kept their arms; clashes grew more frequent.

Meanwhile, war had broken out between Spain and the United States (the Spanish-American War). After the U.S. naval victory in the Battle of Manila Bay in May 1898, Aguinaldo and his entourage returned to the Philippines with the help of Adm. George Dewey. Confident of U.S. support, Aguinaldo reorganized his forces and soon liberated several towns south of Manila. Independence was declared on June 12 (now celebrated as Independence Day). In September a constitutional congress met in Malolos, north of Manila, which drew up a fundamental law derived from European and Latin American precedents. A government was formed on the basis of that constitution in January 1899, with Aguinaldo as president of the new country, popularly known as the “Malolos Republic.”

Meanwhile, U.S. troops had landed in Manila and, with important Filipino help, forced the capitulation in August 1898 of the Spanish commander there. The Americans, however, would not let Filipino forces enter the city. It was soon apparent to Aguinaldo and his advisers that earlier expressions of sympathy for Filipino independence by Dewey and U.S. consular officials in Hong Kong had little significance. They felt betrayed.

U.S. commissioners to the peace negotiations in Paris had been instructed to demand from Spain the cession of the Philippines to the United States; such cession was confirmed with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. Ratification followed in the U.S. Senate in February 1899, but with only one vote more than the required two-thirds. Arguments of “manifest destiny” could not overwhelm a determined anti-imperialist minority.

By the time the treaty was ratified, hostilities had already broken out between U.S. and Filipino forces. Since Filipino leaders did not recognize U.S. sovereignty over the islands and U.S. commanders gave no weight to Filipino claims of independence, the conflict was inevitable. It took two years of counterinsurgency warfare and some wise conciliatory moves in the political arena to break the back of the nationalist resistance. Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901 and shortly thereafter appealed to his countrymen to accept U.S. rule.

The Filipino revolutionary movement had two goals, national and social. The first goal, independence, though realized briefly, was frustrated by the American decision to continue administering the islands. The goal of fundamental social change, manifest in the nationalization of friar lands by the Malolos Republic, was ultimately frustrated by the power and resilience of entrenched institutions. Share tenants who had rallied to Aguinaldo’s cause, partly for economic reasons, merely exchanged one landlord for another. In any case, the proclamation of a republic in 1898 had marked the Filipinos as the first Asian people to try to throw off European colonial rule.

Ethnic groups
The ethnically diverse people of the Philippines collectively are called Filipinos. The ancestors of the vast majority of the population were of Malay descent and came from the Southeast Asian mainland as well as from what is now Indonesia. Contemporary Filipino society consists of nearly 100 culturally and linguistically distinct ethnic groups. Of these, the largest are the Tagalog of Luzon and the Cebuano of the Visayan Islands, each of which constitutes about one-fifth of the country’s total population. Other prominent groups include the Ilocano of northern Luzon and the Hiligaynon (Ilongo) of the Visayan islands of Panay and Negros, comprising roughly one-tenth of the population each. The Waray-Waray of the islands of Samar and Leyte in the Visayas and the Bicol (Bikol) of the Bicol Peninsula together account for another one-tenth. Filipino mestizos and the Kapampangans (Pampango) of south-central Luzon each make up small proportions of the population.

Many smaller groups of indigenous and immigrant peoples account for the remainder of the Philippines’ population. The aboriginal inhabitants of the islands were the Negritos, a term referring collectively to numerous peoples of dark skin and small stature, including the Aeta, Ita, Agta, and others. Those communities now constitute only a tiny percentage of the total population. From the 10th century, contacts with China resulted in a group of mixed Filipino-Chinese descent, who also account for a minority of the population. Small numbers of resident Chinese nationals, emigrants from the Indian subcontinent, U.S. nationals, and Spanish add to the population’s ethnic and cultural diversity.

Languages
Estimates of the total number of native languages and dialects spoken in the Philippines differ, but scholarly studies suggest that there are some 150. Most of the country’s languages are closely related, belonging to one of several subfamilies of Austronesian—more specifically, Western Malayo-Polynesian—languages. The major languages of the country generally correspond to the largest ethnic groups. Tagalog is the most widespread language of the Central Philippine subfamily, with the bulk of its native speakers concentrated in Manila, central and south-central Luzon, and the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque. The national language of the Philippines, Pilipino (also called Filipino), is based on Tagalog and shares a place with English (the lingua franca) as an official language and medium of instruction. Tagalog (including Pilipino) has the most extensive written literature of all Philippine languages. Cebuano, also a Central Philippine language, is used widely in Cebu, Bohol, eastern Negros, western Leyte, and parts of Mindanao. Ilocano is the most commonly spoken language of the Northern Luzon subfamily, and its speakers constitute the third largest language community of the Philippines.

Other prominent languages of the Central Philippine group include Hiligaynon and Waray-Waray, both spoken in the Visayas, as well as several varieties of Bicol, spoken in southern Luzon. The language of the Tausug is widespread in both Palawan and the Sulu Archipelago, where it is used in Tausug as well as many non-Tausug communities. Similarly, the languages of the Kapampangans and Pangasinan, both of the Northern Philippine subfamily, have many speakers in central Luzon. Notable languages of the Southern Philippine subfamily are those spoken by the Maguindanao and Maranao of western Mindanao.

Religion
Some four-fifths of Filipinos profess Roman Catholicism. During the 20th century the religion gained strength through growth in the number of Filipinos in the church hierarchy, construction of seminaries, and, especially after 1970, increased involvement of the church in the political and social life of the country. Jaime Cardinal Sin, archbishop of Manila, was one of the country’s most politically outspoken spiritual leaders of the late 20th century.

Adherents of other denominations of Christianity constitute roughly one-tenth of the population. The Philippine Independent Church (the Aglipayans), established in 1902 in protest against Spanish control of the Roman Catholic Church, has several million members. The indigenous church called Iglesia ni Cristo, also founded in the early 20th century, has a smaller but nonetheless significant following.

Islam was brought to the southern Philippines in the 15th century from Brunei (on Borneo), to the west. The religion was already well established in the Sulu Archipelago and Mindanao by the time of European contact, and it had a growing following around Manila. Contemporary Muslim Filipino communities, collectively known as Moros, are largely limited to the southern islands and account for about 5 percent of the population.

Small numbers of Filipinos practice Buddhism or local religions. Buddhism is associated primarily with communities of Chinese descent. Local religions are maintained by some of the rural indigenous peoples.

Cultural milieu
Philippine society is a unique blend of diversity and homogeneity. Although geographically part of Southeast Asia, the country is culturally strongly Euro-American. Forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome cultural differences between the various ethnic groups that are scattered—sometimes in relative isolation—throughout the archipelago. Nearly four centuries of Western rule, however, have left an indelible imprint on the Philippines, serving as a conduit for the introduction of Western culture and as the catalyst for the emergence of a sense of Philippine political and cultural unity. While the Christian churches built by the Spanish and the mosques built by the Muslims provided a spiritual anchor, the educational system established by the United States and expanded by the Filipinos has become emblematic of cultural unity and socioeconomic progress. Nonetheless, through the persistence of strong family ties, the revival of the barangay as the smallest unit of government, increased attention to Asian history and literature, and subsequent revival of dormant traditions, the Philippines has strengthened its Asian heritage without abandoning its Western cultural acquisitions.

Daily life and social customs
Life in the Philippines generally revolves around the extended family, including parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins (up to several times removed), and other relatives. For Catholic families, godparents—those to whom care of children is entrusted should the parents die or otherwise be incapacitated—also figure prominently in the kinship network. Members of extended families typically gather for major life events such as baptisms and confirmations (for Catholic Filipinos), circumcisions (for Muslim Filipinos), and marriages, as well as for major religious and other national holidays. Among the religious holidays officially observed in the Philippines are Christmas and Easter, as well as Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the Muslim fasting month of Ramadan. Other major holidays include New Year’s Day, Labor Day (May 1), and Independence Day (June 12).

Whether festival fare or everyday food, major meals in most Filipino societies are built around boiled or steamed rice or rice noodles. Small amounts of meat, including chicken, pork (in non-Muslim communities), goat, or fish complement the rice or noodle core, along with an assortment of fruits and cooked vegetables. Assorted alcoholic drinks are made from coconut sap, sugarcane, and rice. Balut, a parboiled embryonic duck still in the egg, is a popular street food in the Manila area.

Although slacks, shirts, skirts, and dresses based on European designs are common throughout the Philippines, some garments are unique to particular groups or regions. The malong, a colourful woven tube of cloth that can be worn in a variety of ways by both men and women, is characteristic of Muslim communities in Mindanao. In the urban areas, many men wear an intricately embroidered shirt, the barong, for casual and formal events. On special occasions, urban women may wear the terno, a long dress characterized by broad “butterfly” sleeves that rise slightly at the shoulders and extend about to the elbow. Many of the smaller ethnic groups have characteristic attire for events of special cultural significance.

The arts
Early Spanish chroniclers testified that the Filipinos carved the images of their anitos (gods and goddesses) and ancestors in wood. They also played a variety of musical instruments, including end-blown flutes, nose flutes, jew’s harps, gongs, drums, and lutes, among others. Various seasonal celebrations (e.g., harvest) and life rituals (e.g., courtship and marriage) called for certain instrumental music, songs, and dances. For instance, in some of the Muslim communities of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, the kulintang ensemble, consisting of a set of gongs suspended horizontally and vertically and a single-headed drum, can still be heard at festive events.

Although the community of practitioners of rural performing arts has been diminishing, efforts have been under way to revive as well as recontextualize some of the indigenous traditions so that they resonate with an increasingly cosmopolitan Philippine society. Some of the local dance traditions have been preserved or reinterpreted by contemporary performing groups such as Bayanihan (the national folk dance company of the Philippines), established in the mid-20th century, as well as by the Ramon Obusan Folkloric Group and Ballet Philippines. A growing number of world music artists, such as Joey Ayala, have been creating innovative syntheses of indigenous Philippine traditions—such as kulintang—and popular music form.

Many Filipino musicians have risen to prominence in the Western classical music tradition, including the composer and conductor Antonio J. Molina, the composer Felipe P. de Leon (known for his nationalistic themes), and the opera singer Jovita Fuentes. The Cultural Center of the Philippines, the Folk Arts Theater, and the restored Manila Metropolitan Theatre (all in Manila) provide homes for the performing arts, featuring local and foreign opera and ballet. To encourage the development of arts, the government gives awards of recognition and maintains a National Arts Center (established 1976), which includes the Philippine High School for the Arts in Los Baños, south of Manila.

Filipino painters have included Juan Luna, whose agitated works helped inspire a sense of Filipino nationalism in the late 19th century; Fernando Amorsolo, who is known for his traditional rural scenes; the muralists Carlos V. Francisco and Vicente Manansala; and the modernists Victorio Edades and Arturo Rogerio Luz. Among sculptors, Guillermo Tolentino and Napoleon Abueva are prominent. Rural artists from mountainous regions in northern Luzon and craftsmen living northwest of Manila and in Paete on the eastern shore of Laguna de Bay are known for wood carvings. Romblon and other nearby islands are noted for their marble sculptures. Notable Filipino architects include Juan F. Nakpil, Otilio Arellano, Fernando Ocampo, Leandro Locsin, Juan Arellano, Carlos Arguelles, and Tomas Mapua.

The outspoken political novels of nationalist leader José Rizal were Philippine literary landmarks of the late 19th century, and the work of Nick Joaquin has been among the most highly acclaimed Philippine literature since the mid-20th century. The diverse cultural heritage of the country not only animates most of Joaquin’s fiction writing, but it is also central to his nonfiction work. Among the most celebrated of Joaquin’s works are his play A Portrait of an Artist as a Filipino (1966) and his biography of assassinated presidential candidate Benigno Aquino, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations (1983). Spanish was the prinicipal literary medium until the end of the 19th century, before yielding to English after U.S. occupation. Since independence an increasing number of writers have been composing their works in Filipino or Tagalog.

Filipinos have a tradition rich in local and regional lore. Myths and legends deal with such subjects as the origin of the world, the first man and woman on earth, why the sky is high, why the sea is salty, and why there are different races. Other tales are associated with the Spanish conquest. On the island of Mindanao an epic known as the Darangen (“To Narrate in Song”) depicts the historical and mythological world of the Maranao community, while in northern Luzon the Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang (“Life of Lam-ang”) recounts the exploits of a traditional folk hero.

The Philippines has produced a handful of internationally acclaimed films, including Himala (1982), which recounts the adventures of a young miracle worker; Oro, Plata, Mata (1982), the story of two noble families on the island of Negros during World War II; and Small Voices (2002), the tale of a teacher in an impoverished rural community who, through music, inspires her students to shed their cynicism. Despite its successes, the film industry in the Philippines has remained small, its growth hindered by escalating production costs, high taxes, uncontrolled piracy of videotapes and CDs, and the popularity of foreign films over local productions.

Archaeological evidence points to signs of human habitation on the Qatar Peninsula around 4000 years BC. For centuries, Qatar was largely populated by Bedouin tribes and a few fishing villages.

Qatar’s modern history begins in 1766 with the establishment of the town of Al-Zubārah, which became an important economic outpost. Before the discovery of oil and gas changed the fortunes of the gulf state, the economy was built around fishing, pearl diving and trading.

A British Protectorate from 1916, the modern state of Qatar was born on September 3, 1971, when it proclaimed its independence. Since then, the country has undergone rapid growth.

Ethnic groups and languages
Qatar was originally settled by Bedouin nomads from the central part of the Arabian Peninsula. Qatari citizens, however, constitute only a small portion—roughly one-ninth—of the total population today. Economic growth beginning in the 1970s created an economy dependent on foreign workers—mostly from Pakistan, India, and Iran—who now far outnumber nationals. Few Qataris retain a nomadic lifestyle.

Arabic is the official language, and most Qataris speak a dialect of Gulf Arabic similar to that spoken in surrounding states. Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools, and English is commonly used. Among the large expatriate population, Persian and Urdu are often spoken.

Religion
Islam is the official religion, and Qataris are largely Sunni Muslims. There is a small Shiʿi minority. The ruling Āl Thānī (Thānī family) adheres to the same Wahhābī interpretation of Islam as the rulers of Saudi Arabia, though not as strictly. Women, for example, have greater freedom in Qatar than in Saudi Arabia. The non-Qatari population has a more diverse religious makeup, with Muslims, Christians, and Hindus comprising the largest religious groups.

Daily life and social customs
The Qatari people are descendants of Bedouin and have maintained a tradition of generous hospitality. Qatari society, however, tends to be conservative in most respects and is heavily influenced by Islamic customs. The consumption of alcohol, for example, is frowned upon, although alcohol may be served in a limited number of hotels catering mainly to foreigners. Likewise, dress is generally traditional and conservative. Qatari Arab men usually dress in a flowing white shirt (thawb) and a head scarf (kaffiyeh) held in place by a cord (ʿiqāl). Dress for Qatari women, although still conservative, is much less formal than in neighbouring Saudi Arabia. Many women still wear the full length black cloak (ʿabāyah), generally over Western clothing, but others simply wear the veil (ḥijāb). Their traditional dress is often decorated with gold or silver embroidery. In public the sexes are customarily separated.

Qatari cuisine features fresh fish and rice cooked with Indian spices. A typical meal might include broiled fish served on a bed of spiced rice with curry and potatoes. Coffee is the beverage of choice and is usually served strong, boiling hot, and without sugar. The capital of Doha also abounds in restaurants offering cuisines from throughout the world.

Qataris celebrate the standard Islamic holidays, including Ramadan and the two ʿīds, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. They also celebrate several secular holidays, such as Independence Day and the anniversary of the emir’s ascension to power.

The arts
The Qatari Fine Arts Society promotes and exhibits work by local painters, as do the handful of galleries to be found in Doha. The National Council for Culture, Arts, and Heritage and several other agencies and departments oversee literary, artistic, and cultural activities as well as recreation and tourism. The traditional Bedouin arts of weaving (mostly rugs and pillows), poetry, and singing are still practiced. A genre of music known as nahmah (shanty), once popular among pearl divers in Qatar and the broader Persian Gulf region, virtually disappeared with the decline of the pearling industry, although the Qatari government has made great efforts to preserve it. Arab, Pakistani, Indian, and other expatriate workers have brought their musical styles to the country, but Qatari youth listen more to Western and Arab popular music than to Bedouin or other traditional forms.

Cultural institutions
The National Museum of Qatar, designed by Jean Nouvel and inaugurated in March 2019, takes visitors through interactive exhibits that feature 700 million years of Qatari history. At its centre is a former palace which had previously housed an earlier national museum. A fort at Doha has been converted into a museum for traditional crafts. Qatar’s National Theatre performs programs in the capital.